View from the porthole of the spacecraft. Frequent misconceptions about space The porthole on the spacecraft reduces the strength of VK

Spivenets, carved, shutters, frames

The bulk of the porthole is, of course, glass. "For space" is used not ordinary glass, and quartz. In the time of the "East" the choice was not particularly large - only the brands of SC and KV were available (the latter - nothing else like a melted quartz). Later they created and experienced many other varieties of glass (KV10C, K-108). I tried to even use the CO-120 brand plexiglas in space. Americans have a brand of thermo and shockproof glass Vycor.

For the portholes, glass of different sizes are used - from 80 mm to a non-small half-meter (490 mm), and recently in orbit appeared eight-graded "glass". About the external protection of "cosmic windows" is ahead, but to protect members of the crew from the harmful effects of near ultraviolet radiation on glass of portholes working with non-stationary installed devices, special lighting coatings are applied.

The porthole is not only glass. To obtain a solid and functional design, several glasses are inserted into the clip made of aluminum or titanium alloy. Even lithium was used for the portholes "shuttle".

To ensure the required level of reliability of glasses in the porthole initially began to do several. In the case of which one glass collapses, and the rest will remain, keeping the ship hermetic. Domestic portholes on the "unions" and "east" had three glasses (on the "Union" there is one double-decker, but he most The flight is covered with periscope).

On Apollo and Space Shuttle, the "windows" are also also three-lane, but "Mercury" - its "first swallow" - the Americans equipped with a four-square porthole.

In contrast to the Soviet American porthole on the Apollo command module, was not a single assembly. One glass worked as part of the shell of the bearing heat shielding surface, and the other two (in fact, a double-decker porthole) was already part of the Hermoconstruction. As a result, such portholes were more visual than optical. Actually, taking into account the key role of pilots in the management of "apollons", such a decision looked quite logical.

On the lunar cabin "Apollonov", all three portholes themselves were single-glossy, but with the outside, they were covered with external glass, not included in the hemoconptors, and from the inside - an internal safety plexiglass. Another single-set portholes were subsequently installed in orbital stations, where the loads are still less than the descent vehicles of spacecraft. And on some spacecraft, for example, on the Soviet interplanetary stations "Mars" of the beginning of the 70s, in one cable were virtually several portholes (double-decker compositions).

When the spacecraft is in orbit, the temperature difference on its surface can be a couple of hundred degrees. Expansion coefficients in glass and metal, naturally, are different. So between glass and metal metal put seals. In our country they dealt with the Research Institute of the Rubber Industry. The design uses vacuum resistant rubber. The development of such seals is a difficult task: rubber - polymer, and cosmic radiation over time "rubit" polymer molecules into pieces, and as a result, "ordinary" rubber simply spreads.

Nasal glazing of a cabin of Burana. Internal and external part of the porthole of the Buran

Upon closer examination, it turns out that in the design of domestic and American "windows" differ significantly from each other. Almost all glasses in domestic structures have the form of a cylinder (naturally, with the exception of the glazing of the camp devices like "Burana" or "Spiral"). Accordingly, the cylinder has a side surface that needs to be specifically processed to minimize the glare. Reflective surfaces inside the porthole are covered with a special enamel, and the side walls of the chambers are sometimes even glued together with a semi-breeze. The glass three rubber rings is compacted (as they were first called - sealing rubber bands).

The glasses of American ships "Apollo" were rounded lateral surfaces, and the rubber seal was stretched onto them, like a tire on the car's wheeler disk.

The glasses inside the porthole will not succeed with a cloth during the flight, and therefore no trash in the camera (the intercouche space) can not categorically. In addition, glass should not foggle or freeze. Therefore, before the start of the spacecraft, not only tanks, but also the portholes - the camera fill in a particularly clean dry nitrogen or dry air. To "unload" the glass itself, the pressure in the chamber is provided twice as smaller than in the hermetic compartment. Finally, it is desirable that the surface of the compartment walls is not too hot or too cold from the inside. To do this, sometimes an internal screen from the plexiglass is installed.

Space is not ocean

What they would not paint in the "Star Wars" and the series "Starterk", space is not an ocean. Too many shows operate with scientifically inaccurate assumptions, displaying moving in space similar to swimming in the sea. This is not true

In general, space is not two-dimensional, there is no friction in it, and the deck cosmole is not like a ship.

More controversial items - spacecraft will not be called under maritime classification (for example, the cruiser, the "linker", "destroyer" or "frigate", the structure of the army ranks will be similar to the title of the Air Force, and not the fleet, and pirates, most likely, in general will not be.

Space Trechmeren

Space Threemeren, he is not two-dimensional. Two dimension - the consequence of the "Cosmos is the ocean". Spacecuts are moving not like boats, it is not available for them to move "up" and "down" it cannot be compared even with the flight of the aircraft, since the spacecraft does not have a "ceiling", its maneuver is the theoretically in no way limited

Orientation in space also does not matter. If you see as the Space Ships "Enterprise" and "Intepid" pass by each other "upside down" - there is nothing strange here, in reality, this position is not forbidden. Moreover: the ship's nose can be directed at all where the ship is currently flies.

This means that the attack of the enemy from a favorable direction with the maximum density of fire "onboard volley" is difficult. Space ships can approach you from any direction, not at all as in two-dimensional space

Rockets are not ships

I don't care about how the planning of the ship "Enterprise" or "Galaxy Battle Star" looks like. In the scientifically correct rocket "down" - this is toward the outlet of rocket engines. In other words, the planning of the spacecraft is much more like a skyscraper than the aircraft. Floors are located perpendicular to the axis of acceleration, and "top" - the direction in which your ship is currently accelerated. Think otherwise - one of the most annoying mistakes is extremely popular in the NF works. This is me about you Star Wars, Starter and Combat Star Galaxy!

This error has grown out of the error "Cosmos two-dimensional". Some works are completely converting space rockets into something like boats. Even from the point of view of ordinary nonsense, sticking out of the "Bridge" housing will be shot down by the enemy fire far faster than placed in the depths of the ship, where he will have at least some kind of protection (the Star Trek and Uchuu Senkan Yamato are immediately remembered.

(Anthony Jackson pointed out two exceptions. First: if the spacecraft acts as an atmospheric aircraft, in the atmosphere "down" will be perpendicular to the wings oppositely, but in space "down" will become the direction of the engine exhaust. Second: ion engine or other small acceleration engine May give the ship some centripetal acceleration, and "down" will be directed along the radius from the axis of rotation.)

Rockets are not fighters

Knocking and "Viper" can maneuver on the screen as it will do, but without the atmosphere and the wings of atmospheric maneuvers do not happen.

Yes, it will not be possible to turn on "on the patch" either. The faster the spacecraft moves, the harder to maneuver. He will not move as a plane. A more successful analogy will be the behavior of a completely loaded tractor with a trailer on a naked ice.

Also in question the justification of fighters from a military, scientific and economic point of view.

Rockets are not arrows

The spacecraft does not necessarily fly there, which indicates its nose. While the engine is working, the acceleration is directed to where the ship's nose looks. But if you turn off the engine, the ship can be freely rotated in the desired direction. If necessary, it is possible to fly "sideways". It may be useful for performing a full side volley in battle.

So all the scenes from the "Star Wars" with a fighter trying to shook the enemy from the tail - full nonsense. They are enough to turn around around their axis and shoot a pursuer (a good example will be the episode of the Babylon 5 "Midnight On The Firing Line").

Rocket has wings

If your rocket has a power plant for a certain amount of megawatt, an absurdly powerful thermal engine or energy weapon, it will require huge radiators for the heat sink. Otherwise, it is quite quickly melted, and even easily evaporate. Radiators will look like huge wings or panels. This is a fair problem for warships, since radiators are extremely vulnerable to fire.

There are no windows in rockets

The portholes on the spacecraft are needed to the same extent as on the submarine. (No, Seaview is not considered. Strictly science fiction. Panoramic viewing windows on the TRIDENT submarine does not happen). The portholes are the weakening of structural strength, and then, what is there to watch? If the ship is not in the orbit of the planet or not near another ship, only the depths of the cosmos and the dazzling sun are visible. And, in contrast to the submarine, on board the spacecraft of the window passes the radiation flow.

The series Star Trek, Star Wars, and Battlestar Galactica are erroneous because the battles will not occur in the distances in meters. The directional energy weapon will work on those distances where the enemy ships can be seen only in the telescope. Looking at the battle in the porthole, you will not see anything. Ships will be too far away, or a flash will blind you nuclear explosion or laser fire, reflected from the surface of the target.

The navigation compartment may have a survey astronomical dome on an emergency, but most of the windows will be replaced by a radar, telescopic television-chambers and similar sensors.

There is no friction in space

There is no friction in space. Here, on Terra, if you drive a car, it is enough to let go of the gas, and the car will start braking the friction about the road. In space, turning off the engines, the ship will retain its speed to the entire balance of eternity (or until it stops in the planet or something else). In the film "2001 A Space Odyssey" you could notice that the spacecraft "Discovery" flew to Jupiter without a single cloud of exhaust from the engines.

That is why it is meaningless to talk about the "distance" of rocket flight. Any rocket is not in orbit planets and not in the gravitational well of the Sun has an endless distance of the flight. In theory, you can freeze the engines and go to the Galaxy of Andromeda ... Reaching the goal for some million years. Instead of distances, it makes sense to talk about changing the speeds.

Acceleration and braking are symmetrical. An hour acceleration to a speed of 1,000 kilometers per second requires approximately an hour of braking to stop. It is impossible to just "click on the brakes" - like on a boat or car. (The word "approximately" is used because the ship loses weight when accelerating and it becomes easier to slow down. But these parts can be ignored while.)

If you want to comprehend the intuitive principles of movement of spacecraft, I recommend to play some one of the few exact simulators. The list includes the ORBITER computer game, the computer (unfortunately not reprinting) The InDependence War game and the Attack Vector: Tactical, Voidstriker, Triplanetary, and Star Fist (these two are no longer published, but they can get caught here).

Fuel does not necessarily lead the ship in motion directly

Rocket has the difference between the "fuel" (indicated red) and the "reaction mass" (indicated blue). Rockets comply with the third Newton law when driving. The mass is thrown by giving the rocket acceleration.

Fuel in this case is spent to throw out this reaction mass. In the classic atomic rocket, uranium-235 will be fuel, ordinary uranium rods in a nuclear reactor, but the reaction mass is hydrogen, preheated in this reactor itself and carved out of the vehicle.

The confusion is caused by the fact that in chemical missiles fuel and the reaction mass - the same thing. Sattle or Saturn 5 rocket flows chemical fuel, directly throwing it out of the tiez.

Cars, airplanes and boats cost relatively small amounts of fuel, but it is not so for rockets. Half the rocket can be occupied by the reaction mass, and the other half is elements of the design, crew and everything else. But much more likely the ratio of 75% of the reaction mass, and then worse. Most rockets are a huge reaction tank with an engine at one end and a tiny crew compartment on another.

There is no invisible in space.

There is no practical way in space to hide the ship from discovery.

There is no sound in space

I do not care how much you have seen movies with roaring engines and floring explosions. The sound is transmitted by the atmosphere. No atmosphere - no sound. No one will hear your last "babes". Correct this moment was displayed in extremely few serials, including Babylon 5 and Firefly.

The only exception is the explosion of nuclear warheads in hundreds of meters from the ship, in this case the flow of gamma rays will force the housing to issue sound during deformation.

Weight not weight

There is a difference between weight and mass. The mass is always the same for the object, but the weight depends on what planet object. Brick weighing one kilogram will weigh 9.81 Newtons (2.2 pounds) on Terre, 1.62 Newton on the moon (0.36 pounds), and zero Newton (0 pounds) on board the international space station. But the lot of everywhere will remain one kilogram. (Chris Bazon indicated that if the object moves on relativistic speed relative to you, then you will find an increase in the mass. But it cannot be noticed at ordinary relative speeds.)

The practical consequences of this are reduced to the fact that on board the ISS it is impossible to move something heavy, tapping on the subject with one mother's thing. (Well, that is, you can, somewhere in a millimeter per week or so.). The shuttle can hang close to the station, possessing zero weight ... But maintaining a mass in 90 metric tons. If you pushed it - the effect will be extremely minor. (approximately as if you pushed it on the landing strip on Cape Kennedy).

And, if the shuttle moves slowly to the station, and you fell between them, the zero weight of the shuttle still will not save you from the sad fate to turn into a cake. Do not brake moving shuttle, resting in it with your hands. It is necessary for this as much energy as it is to bring it in motion. There is so much energy in man.

Sorry, but your orbital builders will not be able to paint the multi-bottom steel beams as if it is toothpicks.

Another requirement of the factor is the third Newton law. The push of the steel beam involves the action and opposition. Since the mass of the beam is most likely more, it will barely move. But you, as less than a massive object, go in the opposite direction with much greater acceleration. This makes most of the tools (for example, hammers and dyeing) useless for the conditions of free fall - have to go to huge tricks to create similar tools for zero conditions.

Free drop is not zero gravity

Technically, people on board the space station are not in "zero gravity". It almost does not differ there from gravity on the surface of the earth (about 93% of the earth). The reason why everyone "flies" is the state of "free fall". If you find yourself in the elevator when the cable breaks, you will also survive the state of the free fall and will "fly" ... until you fall. (Yes, Jonathan pointed out that the air resistance is ignored here, but you understand the basic idea.)

The fact is that the station is located on the "orbit" - which is a tricky way to fall, constantly blinking by the earth. See here.

The explosion will not

Once in a vacuum without a protective suit you do not burst like a ball. Dr. Jeffrey Landis spent a fairly detailed analysis of this issue.
In short: you will remain conscious for ten seconds, do not explode, you will live around 90 seconds.

They don't need our water

Marcus Baur pointed out that the invasion of aliens on Terra for the sake of our water is the same as the invasion of Eskimos in Central America for the sake of ice theft. Yes, yes, it is about the notorious series V.

Marcus: No need to fly to the ground by water. This is one of the most common substances "there, at the top" ... So why drive a ship for several light years in order that you can easily get much cheaper (and without this annoying human resistance) in your native system, almost " around the corner"?

And I want to write one more article. I initially read it in the Nizhegorodskaya Land "newspaper, but the original, it turns out, was printed in the Russian Space magazine. While drove from the village to the city, just read. The article tells about the history of the creation of portholes, popularly and intelligibly tells about how they are created with Americans, from which they consist and where are used.

When looking at the spacecraft, the eyes usually scatter. Unlike an airplane or submarine with extremely "licked" circles, the mass of all blocks, structural elements, pipelines, cables ... But there are on board and details that are visible at first glance. Here are the portholes, for example. Just like aircraft or sea! In fact, this is not so ...

Cut the window into the universe

From the very beginning of flights to space stood the question: "And what overboard - it would be nice to see!" That is, of course, certain considerations on this expense were - astronomers and pioneers of astronautics were trying, not to mention science science fiction writers. In the Roman Julie, the heroes go to the lunar expedition in the shell, equipped with glass windows with dampers. Through the large windows look at the elevated heroes of Tsiolkovsky and Wells.

Space apparatus of the type of zenith before docking with a carrier rocket. The portholes before lenses of the camera are covered with covers (photo: RKK energy) When it came to practice, a simple word "window" seemed unacceptable space technology developers. Therefore, what kind of astronauts can look out from the ship, it is called, there is no little, special, but less "branded" - the portholes. Moreover, the porthole itself for people is the porthole visual, and for some kind of equipment - optical.

The portholes are both a constructive element of the cosmic shell, and an optical device. On the one hand, they serve to protect devices and crews located inside the compartment, from the effects of the external environment, on the other, should provide the possibility of working in various optical equipment and visual observation. Not only, however, observation - when, on both sides of the ocean, the technique was painted for "star wars", through the portholes of warships were collected and aimed.

Americans and in general English rackets, the term "porthole" puts in a dead end. Ask how: "Is it windows, or what?" IN english language Everything is simple - that in the house, that in the "Shuttle" - Window, and no problems. But the English sailors say Porthole. So the Russian cosmic window builders, probably, closer to the spirit of overseas shipboards.

Karen Niberg at the window of the Japanese module Kibo who arrived to the ISS of the Japanese module, 2008 (photo: NASA) on the spacecraft of observation can be found two types of portholes. The first type completely separates the photographic equipment in the aromotage (lens, cassette part, image receivers and other functional elements) from the "hostile" external environment. According to such a scheme, Space Activities of the Zenit type are built. The second type of portholes separates the cassette part, image receivers and other elements from the external environment, while the lens is in the lentern compartment, that is, in vacuo. Such a scheme is applied on "Amber" spacecraft. With such a scheme, the requirements for the optical properties of the porthole become particularly rigid, since the porthole is now an integral part of the optical system of the film apparatus, and not a simple "window into space".

It was believed that the astronaut would be able to manage the ship, based on what he could see. The least managed to implement it. In particular, it is important to "look ahead" when docking and landing on the moon - there, American astronauts have repeatedly involved when landing manual control.

The edge of the porthole of the East is visible behind the helmet of the cosmonauta of most astronauts, the psychological view of the top and bottom is formed depending on the surrounding environment, and the portholes can also help. Finally, the portholes, like windows on Earth, serve to illuminate compartments when flying above the illuminated side of the Earth, Moon or distant planets.

As with any optical instrument, the ship window has a focal length (from a semi-kilometer to fifty) and many other specific optical parameters.

Our glaziers are the best in the world.

When creating the first spacecraft in our country, the development of portholes was instructed by the Research Institute of Aviation Glass Minaviaprom (now it is JSC "Technical Glass"). In the creation of "windows to the universe" also participated in the state optical institute. S. I. Vavilov, Research Institute of Rubber Industry, Krasnogorsk Mechanical Plant and a number of other enterprises and organizations. A great contribution to the cooking glass of various brands, the manufacture of portholes and unique long-focus lenses with a large aperture made near Moscow Lytkarinsky optical glass plant.

The porthole on the hatch of the command module of the Apollozdach ship was extremely difficult. Another production of aircraft lamps was mastered at one time long and difficult - the glass quickly lost transparency, covered with cracks. In addition to ensuring transparency, patriotic War Forced to develop armored cells, after the war, the growth rates of reactive aviation led not only to the increase in strength requirements, but also to the need to preserve the properties of glazing during aerodynamic heating. For the Space Projects, glass that was used for lanterns and aircraft portholes was not suitable - no temperature and load.

The first space portholes were developed in our country on the basis of the decision of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR No. 569-264 of May 22, 1959, which provided for the beginning of preparation for piloted flights. And in the USSR, and in the US, the first portholes were round - such it was easier to calculate and produce. In addition, domestic ships, as a rule, could be managed without the participation of a person, and, accordingly, there was, accordingly, there was no need for a too good review "on the aircraft". Gagarinsky "Vostok" had two portholes. One was placed on the input hatch of the descent apparatus, slightly above the head of the cosmonaut, the other - at his feet in the housing of the descent apparatus. It is not too superfluous to remember the names of the main developers of the first portholes in the Research Institute of Aviation Glass - this is S. M. Brehovsky, V.I. Alexandrov, H. E. Serebryannikova, Yu. I. Nechaev, L. A. Kalashnikova, F. T. Vorobyov, E. F. Postolskaya, L. V. King, B. P. Kolgankov, E. I. Flowers, C. V. Volchanov, V. I. Krasin, E. G. Loginova and others.

Virgil Grissom and the Liberty Bell ship capsule. The illuminator trapezium is visible (Photo: NASA) as a result of many reasons when creating its first spacecraft, our American colleagues experienced a serious "mass deficit". Therefore, the level of automation of the ship, similar to Soviet, they simply could not afford even taking into account the easier electronics, and many of the ship management functions were closed on experienced test pilots selected in the first cosmonaut detachment. At the same time, in the original version of the first American ship "Mercury" (about which they said that the astronaut is not included in it, but puts it on himself), the pilot the porthole is not provided for nothing - even the required 10 kg of additional mass took it was nowhere.

The porthole appeared only at the ultimate request of the Astronauts themselves after the first flight of Shepard. The present, full "pilot" the porthole appeared only on "Gemini" - on the planting hatch of the crew. But it was not round it, but a complex trapezoidal form, because for a full-fledged manual control when docking the pilot required an overview of ahead; In the "Union", by the way, for this purpose periscope was installed on the porthole of the descent apparatus. The development of the portholes from Americans was engaged in Corning, a jdsu division was responsible for the windows on the glasses.

On the Lunar Apollo command module, one of the five portholes also put on the hatch. Two others, providing rapprochement when docking with a moon module, looked forward, and two more "side" allowed to take a glance perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the ship. At the "unions" there were usually three portholes on the descent apparatus and up to five on the household compartment. Most of the portholes in orbital stations are up to several dozen, different shapes and sizes.

The nasal glazing of the cabin of the Space Shattlavian stage in the "Occarament" was the creation of glazing for space aircraft - Space Shuttle and Burana. "Cheloveks" are planting in a self-sufficient, and therefore, the pilot needs to provide a good overview from the cab. Therefore, American, and domestic developers have provided for six large portholes of complex form. Plus a pair in the roof of the cabin is already to ensure docking. Plus windows in the back of the cab - for operations with a lot of cargo. Finally, by the Illuminator on the inlet hatch.

At dynamic sections of the flight on the front portholes "Shuttle" or "Burana" there are completely different loads other than those who are subject to the portholes of ordinary descent devices. Therefore, the calculation on the strength here is different. And when the "shuttle" already in orbit, the portholes turn out to be "too much" - the cab overheats, the crew receives an extra "ultraviolet". Therefore, during the orbital flight, part of the portholes in the cockpit "Shuttle" are closed with kevlar flaps-shutters. But the "Burana" inside the portholes had a photochromic layer, which darkly did not let in the action of ultraviolet radiation and "superfluous" into the cab.

Frames, shutters, scolding, carved vents ...

Julie Piette controls the manipulator of Indebore in the ceiling window of the ship (photo: NASA) for the portholes used glass of different sizes - from 80 mm to without a small half-meter (490 mm), and recently an eight-graded "glass" appeared in orbit. About the external protection of "cosmic windows" is ahead, but to protect members of the crew from the harmful effects of near ultraviolet radiation on glass of portholes working with non-stationary installed devices, special lighting coatings are applied.

To ensure the required level of reliability of glasses in the porthole initially began to do several. In the case of which one glass collapses, and the rest will remain, keeping the ship hermetic. Domestic portholes on the "Unions" and "Easterns" had three glasses (on the "Union" there is one double-decker, but it covered the most part of the flight to the periscope).

On Apollo and Space Shuttle, the "windows" are also also three-lane, but "Mercury" - its "first swallow" - the Americans equipped with a four-square porthole.

Twin-decker porthole (at the top), a three-lane porthole of the spacecraft of the Soyuz family (below) (photo: Sergey Andreeva) Unlike the Soviet American porthole on the "Apollo" team module, did not constitute a single assembly. One glass worked as part of the shell of the bearing heat shielding surface, and the other two (in fact, a double-decker porthole) was already part of the Hermoconstruction. As a result, such portholes were more visual than optical. Actually, taking into account the key role of pilots in the management of "apollons", such a decision looked quite logical.

The glasses of American ships "Apollo" were rounded lateral surfaces, and the rubber seal was stretched onto them, like a tire on the car's wheeler disk.

The first person on the moon Neil Armstrong in the moon module Eagle (Photo: NASA) The glass inside the porthole will not succeed with a cloth during the flight, and therefore no garbage in the camera (intercouche space) cannot be found categorically. In addition, glass should not foggle or freeze. Therefore, before the start of the spacecraft, not only tanks, but also the portholes - the camera fill in a particularly clean dry nitrogen or dry air. To "unload" the glass itself, the pressure in the chamber is provided twice as smaller than in the hermetic compartment. Finally, it is desirable that the surface of the compartment walls is not too hot or too cold from the inside. To do this, sometimes an internal screen from the plexiglass is installed.

The light on India fell as wedge. Lens turned out to be!

Glass is not metal, it is destroyed differently. There will be no dents here - a crack will appear. The strength of the glass depends mainly on the state of its surface. Therefore, it is strengthened, eliminating surface defects - microcracks, laits, scratches. For this, the glass is etched, hardened. However, with glasses used in optical devices, not accepted. Their surface is reinforced with the so-called deep grinding. By the beginning of the 70s, external glass of optical portholes learned how to strengthen the ion exchange, which made it possible to increase their abrasive resistance.

One of the portholes of the descended device of the Code Most of the flight is covered with periscopomdl. They may include tin or indium oxide. Such coatings increase light transmission by 10-12%, and they are applied by the method of reactive cathode spraying. In addition, India's oxide absorbs neutrons well, which is not suitable, for example, during the manned interplanetary flight. India generally "philosopher's stone" glass, and not only glass, industry. The mirrors with an indium coating reflect most of the spectrum equally. In the rubbing nodes of Indium significantly improves resistance to abrasion.

In flight, the portholes can be dirty and from the outside. Already after the start of flights under the program "Gemini", astronauts have noticed that evaporation from heat-shielding coating is settled on the glasses. Spacecraft in flight generally acquire the so-called concomitant atmosphere. Something breaks out of the shooters, "hang" next to the ship small particles of screen-vacuum heat insulation, right there - products combustion of fuel components when operating orientation engines ... In general, garbage and dirt turns out to be more than enough so that not only "spoil View, but also, for example, break the work of on-board cameras.

(Photo: ESA) Developers of interplanetary space stations from NGOs them. C.A. Lochochkin says that during the flight of the spacecraft, two "heads" - kernels were discovered in its composition. It was recognized as important scientific discovery. Then it turned out that the second "head" appeared due to the fogging of the porthole, which led to the effect of the optical prism.

The glasses of the portholes should not change the lights, when exposed to ionizing radiation from the background space radiation and cosmic radiation, including as a result of outbreaks in the sun. The interaction of the electromagnetic radiation of the Sun and the cosmic rays with glass is generally complex phenomenon. The absorption of radiation with glass can lead to the formation of the so-called "color centers", that is, to a decrease in the initial light transmission, as well as cause luminescence, since part of the absorbed energy can immediately stand out as light quanta. The luminescence of the glass creates an additional background, which lowers the contrast of the image, increases the noise ratio to the signal and can make the normal functioning of the instrument. Therefore, glass used in optical portholes must have, along with high radiation-optical resistance, low luminescence levels. The magnitude of the luminescence intensity is no less important for optical glasses under the influence of radiation than staining resistance.

The porthole of the Soviet spacecraft Zond-8 (Photo: Sergey Andreeva) Among the factors of the space flight One of the most dangerous for the portholes is a micrometeor impact. It leads to a rapid drop in glass strength. His optical characteristics deteriorate. Already after the first year of flight on the outer surfaces of long-term orbital stations, craters and scratches are detected, reaching one and a half years. If most of the surface can be used from meteor and man-made particles, then the portholes do not protect. To a certain extent, blends are saved, sometimes installed on the portholes, through which, for example, onboard cameras. At the first American orbital station "Skylab" was assumed that the portholes would be partly energized with elements of the structure. But, of course, the most radical and reliable solution is to cover up outside the portholes of "orbital" controlled lids. This decision was applied, in particular, at the Soviet orbital station of the second generation "Salyut-7".

"The garbage" in orbit is becoming more and more. In one of the flights "Shuttle", something clearly technological left on one of the portholes a rather noticeable injection-crater. The glass has grown, but who knows what can fly next time? .. This, by the way, is one of the reasons for the serious concern of the "space community" problems of cosmic garbage. In our country, the problems of micrometeorite effect on the elements of the design of spacecraft, including the portholes, is actively involved in, in particular, Professor of the Samara State Aerospace University L.G. Lukashev.

Valery Poles meets on docking with the world of discovery. A well-fledged lid of the illuminatura is still more difficult, the portholes of the descent devices are operating. When descending in the atmosphere, they turn out to be in the high-temperature plasma cloud. In addition to the pressure from the inside of the compartment on the porthole, there is an external pressure on the descent. And then it follows landing - often on snow, sometimes into water. At the same time, the glass is sharply cooled. Therefore, special attention is paid to the strength issues.

"The simplicity of the porthole is the apparent phenomenon. Some optics say that the creation of a flat porthole is more complex task than the manufacture of a spherical lens, since it is much more complicated to construct the mechanism of "accurate infinity" than the mechanism with a finite radius, that is, spherical surfaces. And nevertheless, there were never any problems with the portholes, "it's probably the best of estimates for the spacecraft node, especially if it sounded from the mouth of Georgy Fomin, in the recent past - First Deputy General Designer of SNPRCTS TsSKB - Progress.

We are all under the "dome" in Europe

Not so long ago - February 8, 2010 after the flight "Shattla" STS-130 - an overview dome appeared at the International Space Station, consisting of several large plithinators of the quadrangular shape and a round eight-graded porthole.

Micrometeoric damage on the porthole Space Shuttle (photo: NASA) The Cupola module is designed to observe the Earth and work with the manipulator. He was developed by the European concern Thales Alenia Space, and Italian machine builders were built in Turin.

Thus, today Europeans hold a record - such large portholes in the United States nor in Russia in orbit have not yet been displayed. The developers of various "cosmic hotels" of the future are also told about huge windows, insisting on their special significance for future space tourists. So, "Oknostration" has a great future, and the portholes continue to remain one of the key elements of the piloted and unmanned spacecraft.

"The type of Cupola's review module" Dome "is really a cool thing! When you look at the land from the window, it's like a 360 degree overview. And in the" dome "for 360 degrees, see everything! Earth from here looks like a map, yes, more Just this resembles a geographical map. It can be seen how the sun goes, as it comes like the night comes ... We look at all this beauty with some kind of fading inside. "

Go to the lunar expedition in a projectile equipped with glass windows with dampers. Through the large windows look at the elevated heroes of Tsiolkovsky and Wells.

When it came to practice, a simple word "window" seemed unacceptable space technology developers. Therefore, what kind of astronauts can look out from the ship, it is called, there is no little, special, but less "branded" - the portholes. Moreover, the porthole itself for people is the porthole visual, and for some kind of equipment - optical.

Americans and in general English rackets, the term "porthole" puts in a dead end. Ask how: "Is it windows, or what?" In English, everything is simple - that in the house that in the "Shuttle" - Window, and no problems. But the English sailors say Porthole. So the Russian cosmic window builders, probably, closer to the spirit of overseas shipboards.

Two types of portholes can be found on the spacecraft of observation. The first type completely separates the photographic equipment in the aromotage (lens, cassette part, image receivers and other functional elements) from the "hostile" external environment. According to such a scheme, Space Activities of the Zenit type are built. The second type of portholes separates the cassette part, image receivers and other elements from the external environment, while the lens is in the lentern compartment, that is, in vacuo. Such a scheme is applied on "Amber" spacecraft. With such a scheme, the requirements for the optical properties of the porthole become particularly rigid, since the porthole is now an integral part of the optical system of the film apparatus, and not a simple "window into space".

Most cosmonauts have a psychological view of the top and bottoms are formed depending on the environment, and the portholes can also help. Finally, the portholes, like windows on Earth, serve to illuminate compartments when flying above the illuminated side of the Earth, Moon or distant planets.

As with any optical instrument, the ship window has a focal length (from a semi-kilometer to fifty) and many other specific optical parameters.

Our glaziers are the best in the world.

The task was extremely difficult. Another production of aircraft lamps was mastered at one time long and difficult - the glass quickly lost transparency, covered with cracks. In addition to ensuring transparency, the domestic war forced to develop armored cells, after the war, the growth of the velocities of reactive aviation led not only to the increase in strength requirements, but also to the need to preserve the properties of glazing during aerodynamic heating. For the Space Projects, glass that was used for lanterns and aircraft portholes was not suitable - no temperature and load.

As a result of many reasons when creating their first spacecraft, our American colleagues experienced a serious "mass deficit". Therefore, the level of automation of the ship, similar to Soviet, they simply could not afford even taking into account the easier electronics, and many of the ship management functions were closed on experienced test pilots selected in the first cosmonaut detachment. At the same time, in the original version of the first American ship "Mercury" (about which they said that the astronaut is not included in it, but puts it on himself), the pilot the porthole is not provided for nothing - even the required 10 kg of additional mass took it was nowhere.

An important stage in the "window-building" was the creation of glazing for space aircraft - Space Shuttle and Burana. "Cheloveks" are planting in a self-sufficient, and therefore, the pilot needs to provide a good overview from the cab. Therefore, American, and domestic developers have provided for six large portholes of complex form. Plus a pair in the roof of the cabin is already to ensure docking. Plus windows in the back of the cab - for operations with a lot of cargo. Finally, by the Illuminator on the inlet hatch.

Frames, shutters, scolding, carved vents ...

To ensure the required level of reliability of glasses in the porthole initially began to do several. In the case of which one glass collapses, and the rest will remain, keeping the ship hermetic. Domestic portholes on the "Unions" and "Easterns" had three glasses (on the "Union" there is one double-decker, but it covered the most part of the flight to the periscope).

On Apollo and Space Shuttle, the "windows" are also also three-lane, but "Mercury" - its "first swallow" - the Americans equipped with a four-square porthole.

Nasal glazing of a cabin of Burana. Internal and external part of the porthole of the Buran

The glasses of American ships "Apollo" were rounded lateral surfaces, and the rubber seal was stretched onto them, like a tire on the car's wheeler disk.

The light on India fell as wedge. Lens turned out to be!

To improve the light light, the glass is enlightened by a multi-layer enlightened coating. They may include tin or indium oxide. Such coatings increase light transmission by 10-12%, and they are applied by the method of reactive cathode spraying. In addition, India's oxide absorbs neutrons well, which is not suitable, for example, during the manned interplanetary flight. India generally "philosopher's stone" glass, and not only glass, industry. The mirrors with an indium coating reflect most of the spectrum equally. In the rubbing nodes of Indium significantly improves resistance to abrasion.

Developers of interplanetary space stations from NGOs them. C.A. Lochochkin says that during the flight of the spacecraft, two "heads" - kernels were discovered in its composition. It was recognized as an important scientific discovery. Then it turned out that the second "head" appeared due to the fogging of the porthole, which led to the effect of the optical prism.

Among the factors of the space flight one of the most dangerous for the portholes is a micrometeor impact. It leads to a rapid drop in glass strength. His optical characteristics deteriorate. Already after the first year of flight on the outer surfaces of long-term orbital stations, craters and scratches are detected, reaching one and a half years. If most of the surface can be used from meteor and man-made particles, then the portholes do not protect. To a certain extent, blends are saved, sometimes installed on the portholes, through which, for example, onboard cameras. At the first American orbital station "Skylab" was assumed that the portholes would be partly energized with elements of the structure. But, of course, the most radical and reliable solution is to cover up outside the portholes of "orbital" controlled lids. This decision was applied, in particular, at the Soviet orbital station of the second generation "Salyut-7".

In even more difficult conditions, the portholes of the descent devices are operating. When descending in the atmosphere, they turn out to be in the high-temperature plasma cloud. In addition to the pressure from the inside of the compartment on the porthole, there is an external pressure on the descent. And then it follows landing - often on snow, sometimes into water. At the same time, the glass is sharply cooled. Therefore, special attention is paid to the strength issues.

We are all under the "dome" in Europe

Panoramic module Cupola.

The Cupola module is designed to observe Earth and working with a manipulator. He was developed by the European concern Thales Alenia Space, and Italian machine builders were built in Turin.

"Dome" - really cool thing! When you look at the land from the window, it's like an embrasure. And in the "dome" by 360 degrees review, everything is visible! The earth looks like a card from here, yes, most of all this resembles a geographical map. It can be seen how the sun goes, as it gets up like the night comes ... You look at all this beauty with some sinking inside.

The Orion's multipurpose transport spacecraft is developed by the NASA agency and Lockheed Martin from the mid-2000s and has already made its first unmanned test flight in December 2014. With the help of Orion, loads and astronauts will be excluded, but this is not all that this ship is capable of. In the future, the ORION will have to deliver people to the surface of the Moon and Mars. When creating a ship, its developers used a lot of interesting technologies and new materials, about one of which we would like to tell you today. When the astronauts travel in the direction of asteroids, the Moon or Mars, there will be awesome types of space in front of them, which they will see through small portholes in the ship's housing. NASA engineers are striving to make these "windows into space" more durable, easy and cheap for production, rather than in previous models of spacecraft. In the case of the ISS and Space shuttle, the portholes were made of multilayer glass. In the case of Orion, acrylic plastic will be used for the first time, which will significantly improve the integrity of the windows of the ship. "Glass window panels historically were part of the shell of a ship supporting the necessary pressure and preventing the death of astronauts. Also, the glass should maximize the crew from a huge temperature at the entrance to the Earth's atmosphere. But the main lack of glass is its structural imperfection. With a large load, the strength of the glass falls over time. When flying in space, this weak point can play a keen joke with the ship, "says Linda Estes, head of the imminodator subsystems in NASA. It is precisely because the glass is not an ideal material for the portholes, the engineers constantly looking for more suitable material for this. There are many structurally stable materials in the world, but among them there are only somewhat transparent among them in order to use them when creating portholes. In the early stages of the development of Orion, NASA specialists tried to use polycarbonates as a material for portholes, but they did not meet the optical requirements necessary to obtain a high resolution image. After that, engineers switched to acrylic material, which provided the highest transparency and tremendous strength. In the USA from acrylic, huge aquariums are made, which protect their inhabitants from the environment of the environment that is potentially dangerous for them, while withstanding a huge water pressure. To date, the Orion is equipped with four portholes mounted in the crew module, as well as additional windows in each of the two hatches. Each porthole consists of three panels. The inner panel is made of acrylic, and two others are still glass. It was in this form that Orion has already managed to visit space during the first test flight. During this year, NASA engineers must decide whether they can use two acrylic panels in the portholes and one glass. In the coming months, Linda Estes and her team should carry out the so-called "creep test" with acrylic panels. The creep in this case is a slow, occurring deformation of a solid body under the influence of constant load or mechanical stress. The creep is subject to everything without exception solid bodies - both crystalline and amorphous. Acrylic panels will be tested for 270 days under huge loads. Acrylic portholes should make the Orion ship is much easier, and their structural strength will exclude the risk of destruction of the portholes due to random scratches and other damage. According to NASA engineers, thanks to the acrylic panels, they will be able to reduce the weight of the ship by more than 90 kilograms. Reducing the mass will make it possible to conclude a ship into space significantly cheaper. The transition to acrylic panels also reduces the maintenance and construction of orders such as Orion, because acrylic is much cheaper than glass. Save on only the portholes will be able to be about 2 million dollars during the construction of one spacecraft. Perhaps in the future, glass panels will be excluded at all from the portholes, but so far additional thorough tests are needed. Taken with hi-news.ru.

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