Social interference of languages. Modern problems of science and education. Cross-language interference and simple examples

The consequence of the influence of one language on another. This phenomenon can manifest itself in both oral and written speech.

According to U. Weinreich, the condition for the occurrence of linguistic interference is linguistic contact, which can be understood as either "verbal communication between two linguistic groups" or an educational situation. “Two or more languages ​​are in contact if they are used alternately by the same person. Thus, the place of contact is the individuals using the language. " The consequence of the contact of languages ​​is often interference, that is, "cases of deviation from the norms of each language, occurring in the speech of bilinguals as a result of their acquaintance with more than one language" (Weinreich 1953, pp. 1-7). E. Haugen defines interference as a linguistic overlap, in which a linguistic unit turns out to be an element of two systems at the same time, or as a superposition of two linguistic systems (Haugen 1972, pp. 69-70). V. Yu. Rosenzweig believes that "interference is a violation by the bilingual of the rules for correlating contacting languages, which manifests itself in his speech in a deviation from the norm" (Rosenzweig 1972, p. 28). “Interference (from Lat. Inter - between oneself, mutually and ferio - touching, hitting) is the interaction of linguistic systems in conditions of bilingualism, which develops either through contacts of languages, or through individual mastery of a non-native language; is expressed in a deviation from the norm and system of the second language under the influence of the native ... ”(Yartseva 1990, p. 197).

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In the context of expanding and deepening contacts between countries, today the question of the success and effectiveness of intercultural communication is acute. The definition of intercultural communication is obvious from the term itself: it is the communication of people representing different cultures. In their work "Language and Culture" EM Vereshchagin and VG Kostomarov define intercultural communication as "adequate mutual understanding of two participants in a communicative act belonging to different national cultures." In order for mutual understanding to take place and unwanted collisions and failures in the act of intercultural communication do not occur, it is necessary to form intercultural competence in future business specialists. Students should be familiar with such a phenomenon as interference - the transfer of the features of the native language to the studied foreign language... Future businessmen, joining the world culture through direct mastery of foreign languages, experience its influence. This influence is especially noticeable when establishing contacts between domestic entrepreneurs, firms and organizations with foreign business partners.

The term "interference" is of Latin origin and means: " inter"Between +" ferens» (« ferentis») Carrier, carrying. Its source is physics with the meaning of the superposition of waves, leading to their mutual strengthening or weakening.

The phenomenon of interference is studied in linguistics, sociolinguistics, psychology, psycholinguistics, methods of teaching foreign languages.

Psychologists view interference as the creation of obstacles and hindrances due to the transfer of skills and abilities from one activity to another. Taking into account the psycholinguistic side of this phenomenon, since the form of speech products caused by interference is due to the functioning of psychophysiological mechanisms of their generation, the interference should be considered as “the process of conflict interaction of speech mechanisms caused by objective discrepancies, which externally manifests itself in the speech of a bilingual in deviations from the laws of one language under the influence of negative interaction of another or due to intralingual influences of a similar nature. "

In psycholinguistics, interference is considered as an integral part of the process of slow gradual penetration of one or another foreign language element into the system of the perceiving language in the process of mastering it.

In linguistics, the problem of interference is considered within the framework of linguistic contacts and interference is understood as "violation by a bilingual (a person who speaks two languages) of the norms and rules of the ratio of two contacting languages." This phenomenon is described in the works of many domestic and foreign scientists (V.V. Alimov, E. Buzharovska, U. Vainreich, E.M. Vereshchagin, V.A.Vinogradov, V.V. Klimov, L.N. N. Komissarov, N. A. Lyubimova, R. K. Minyar-Beloruchev, N. B. Mechkovskaya, E. Petrovich, V. Yu. Rosenzweig, Yu. I. Studenichnik, E. Haugen, L. V. Shcherba ).

In the linguistic literature, the term "interference" was introduced by the scientists of the Prague Linguistic Circle. However, this term was widely recognized after the publication of W. Weinreich's monograph. According to W. Weinreich, interference is understood as "those cases of deviation from the norms of any of the languages ​​that occur in the speech of bilinguals as a result of the fact that they know more languages ​​than one, that is, due to linguistic contact."

According to E. Haugen, interference is "cases of deviation from the norms of the language that appear in the speech of bilingual speakers as a result of acquaintance with other languages."

Russian scientists generally share the positions of foreign researchers on this issue. V.V. Klimov believes that interference is the result of the superposition of two systems in the process of speech. According to NB Mechkovskaya, interference is errors in speech in a foreign language caused by the influence of the native language.

The New Illustrated Encyclopedia defines interference as “the interaction of language systems in a bilingual environment; is expressed in deviations from the norm and the system of the second language under the influence of the native one ”.

A more complete and modern definition of interference, proposed by V. A. Vinogradov, we find in the "Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary" edited by V. N. Yartseva: "Interference (from lat. inter- among themselves, mutually and ferio- I touch, I hit) - the interaction of language systems in the conditions of bilingualism, which is developing either with linguistic contacts, or with the individual mastering of a non-native language; is expressed in deviations from the norm and the system of the second language under the influence of the native one ”.

NB Mechkovskaya points out that in the linguistic consciousness of a person, certain features of the non-native are mistakenly compared to the structure of the native (or main) language. Interference of two language systems occurs, i.e. their partial identification and confusion, which leads to errors in speech (sometimes in one, sometimes in both languages). The interference of linguistic systems in the consciousness and speech of a bilingual individual is a psycholinguistic analogue of the process of mixing languages ​​in a supraindividual plane.

In the methodology of teaching foreign languages, interference is considered as a negative result of the unconscious transfer of the previous linguistic experience, as an inhibiting influence of the native language on the foreign language being studied. According to RK Minyar-Beloruchev, interference is the imposition of formed skills on newly formed ones with a minus sign, the same as negative transference.

Depending on the "direction", interference can be forward, backward, or two-way; depending on the type of speech activity - impressive (receptive) or expressive (productive); depending on the form of manifestation - explicit or hidden; intralingual (internal) or interlanguage (external), interference of the first or second, etc. language; depending on the result - complicating, violating or destructive.

V methodological literature the following types of interference are distinguished:

- external and internal (by origin);

- direct and indirect (by the nature of the transfer of skills of the native language to the foreign language being studied);

- explicit and hidden (by the nature of the manifestation);

- phonetic, graphic and spelling, lexical (semantic, grammatical (syntactic), linguistic and cultural, cultural (linguistic nature - level).

Let us briefly dwell on the characteristics of each type of level interference that is of greatest interest to future businessmen.

Phonetic interference... Phonological errors, distorting the sound form and meaning, make it difficult or even violate the act of communication. For example: Sorbon (Robert de Sorbon) - Sorbonne, f; dessin, m- dessine (dessiner); fille, f- fil, m; plein - pleine; plaine, f; but, m- bout, m; rue, f- roue, f.

Examples from German: " fordern" (demand) - " fördern»(Contribute, assist); " ü bers΄ etzen"(Translate) -" ΄ü bersetzen»(Transport, forward).

Students know perfectly well that the German “ Kurort " also means in Russian “ resort", but with great difficulty they get used to the fact that the stress in German falls not on the last, but on the first syllable (" K΄urort ").

Graphical and spelling interference manifests itself in writing: the rules for writing words of another language are transferred into the target language. This generates spelling errors about graphic inconsistencies. In French there are words that have a spelling different from the Russian language, especially for doubled consonants. So there are words that have a doubled consonant in Russian and one consonant in French: “ gru nn a»- le grou p e; " meta ll »- le méta l. However, there are many more such words in which one consonant of the Russian language corresponds to a doubled consonant in a word of the French language. For example: " a pp laudir" - a NS lodize; " l ’a pp artement" - a NS artwork; " l ’a pp ellation" - a NS elation; " leco rr odor" - NS R idor; " lera pp ort"- ra NS ort; " l ’a ff iche" - a f isha; " l ’a nn once" - a n he is with; " laba ll erine"- ba l erina; " lali tté rature"- whether T erature; " laperso nn e"- person n a.

In German: " derKo rr idor" - the corridor; " dieA pp ellation" - a NS elation; " dasA pp artement" - a NS artwork.

Examples from English are: “ a pp eal" - a NS elation; " a gg ression" - a G ression; " a dd re ss " - a d re with.

Lexical interference- the interference of the vocabulary of one language system in another, which usually leads to literalism. I. N. Kuznetsova understands lexical interference as “bilaterally (in terms of expression and in terms of content) the convergence of lexical units of one or different languages, due to their, first of all, phonetic, but also the semantic use arising from it, and leading to an involuntary (stylistic) violation of the linguistic norm ”. So, for example, the word "journal, m"Is understood as" journal "(revue, f), not a "newspaper"; "Magazine, m"-" shop "(magasin, m), not an "illustrated magazine"; "Démonstration, f"-" demonstration "(" manifestation, f "), and not "manifestation, proof"; "Dissertation, f"-" dissertation "(" thèse, f"), And not" writing-reasoning "; "Aspirant, m"-" graduate student "(" boursier, m"), And not" an officer with a junior military rank". This list of "false friends of the translator" can be continued. VL Muravyov's manual "Faux amis" (Muravyov, VL Faux amis / VL Muravyov. - M., 1985) is intended just for the prevention of errors that arise by false analogy with existing Russian words ...

A similar phenomenon is observed in the German language. For example, the word “Magazin, n"Is understood and translated by the trainees as" shop "(" Laden, m"; "Geschäft, n"; "Handlung, f";), And not an" illustrated magazine ".

In modern German, there are many homonymous nouns, and they are distinguished by gender.

However, there are also homonymous nouns that have the same gender, for example: Bank, f... This word can be translated as “ bench (bench)", And How " bank»: IstdieseBankfrei?

Arbeitest-du in einer Bank?

Or another example: “der Ball, m» – « ball, ball, lump, core»;

"Der Ball, m» – « ball» ;

"Der Ball, m» – « barkingdogs»;

"Der Ball, m» – « shutter».

At the lexeme level, it is expected that there will be no opposition between the pairs " Fuß" and " Bein", a English language « foot" and " leg».

Examples from English are the words: “ Dutch"-" Dutch ", not" Danish "; " West"-" west ", not" east "; " obligation"-" obligation ", not" bond "; " artist"-" artist ", not" artist "; " host"-" host ", not" guest "; " decade"-" decade ", not" decade "; " genial"-" cheerful, kind, warm-hearted, sociable ", and not" brilliant "(see the English-Russian and Russian-English dictionary of" false friends of the translator "/ Under the General editorship of V. V. Akulenko. - M., 1969 ).

Semantic interference arises due to the fact that the phenomena known to the speaker are reflected in the new language differently than in the already known languages. For example, Russian students call “black bread” in French “noir” instead of “ painbis» .

Grammatical interference. In grammatical interference, S. S. Sorokina distinguishes syntactic and morphological subtypes, which, in turn, include manifestations of interference in an even narrower framework. So syntactic interference includes: a) constructive subtype; b) positional syntax; c) subtypes of syntactic agreement.

Students have difficulty translating a number of grammatical forms and structures:

a) the same form in French has different grammatical meanings and is transmitted into Russian in two different forms. For example: On sait. - Nous, on le sait. The construction in the second meaning usually causes difficulties in translation;

b) the pronoun "il" in the meaning of "he" and in an impersonal construction. For example: Il fait du sport. - Il fait du vent. Cela me plaît! - S'il vous plaît.

c) the form "passé composé" in some cases is translated by a verb of the perfect form, in others - imperfect:

J'ai tricoté cette écharpe. - J'ai tricoté cette écharpe toute la journée;

d) mismatch of control of verbs of two languages. For example, the Russian verbs “help, applaud” require an indirect addition, and the French “aider, applaudir” require a direct one. Trainees often use the preposition "à". We observe the same thing in another case: “consult a dictionary, look at the clock” - “consulter le dictionnaire, consulter la montre”;

e) the same meaning is conveyed in French in two words, and in Russian - in one: faire marcher - to include; faire paraître - to publish; faire bouillir - to boil; laisser passer - skip; laisser tomber - drop; laisser approcher - to admit.

Examples from German:

a) knowing that the German word “ derMangel"(Lack of) masculine gender, the student believes that the words" Regel "(rule), " Rätsel"(Riddle) will also be masculine. Unfortunately, the gender of German nouns with only one ending is difficult to predict. Word " Regel"Is feminine, and the word" Rätsel"- neuter.

b) the same form in German has different grammatical meanings and is transmitted into Russian in different forms:

The construction in the second meaning usually causes difficulties in translation.

c) the pronoun " es»In the meaning of a personal pronoun and in an impersonal construction. For example: Es (das Kind) gibt das Heft. - Es gibt (there is) viele schöne Blumen in diesem Garten.

Es (das Kind) steht. Wie steht es mit deiner Arbeit? - HowareAffairswithyourwork?

Wiegeht es dir? - How are you?Es lä utet ... - The bell rings.

d) mismatch of control of verbs of two languages. For example, the Russian verb “ wait"Requires a direct object, and the German verb" warten"- indirect. Trainees, on the other hand, often forget to use the preposition “ auf (Akk.)". We observe the same in another case: “ enter class» – « betretendieKlasse»; « answer the questions» – « beantwortendieFragen»; « admire pictures» – « bewunderndieGemälde», « to apologize» – « umEntschuldigungbitten».

e) the same meaning is conveyed in German by two words, and in Russian by one: eintretenlassen- skip; fallenlassen- drop;

f) fuzzy differentiation of the meaning of prepositions in the studied and native languages: instead of using the preposition "an" (an der Universität), students use the preposition "in" (in der Universität).

In addition to grammatical interference, they often also talk about syntactic interference. Usually, as examples, students' misuse of so-called infinitive constructions is cited. In English it is a complex Object, in German it is a combination of verbs denoting physical perception with an infinitive. For example: " Ichsahihnkommen(German) "-" Isawhimcome(English) "-" I saw (saw) how he came. " At the syntactic level, interference will reveal itself in a violation of the framework structure, in the free order of words, etc. It should be noted that interference in syntax is the most difficult to overcome, and especially in those cases when it affects not in gross errors, but in "inorganicity" , artificiality of the phrase.

Stylistic interference- the influence of the style of one language on another. Stylistic interference arises because some lesser known word begins to be used by analogy with its already known synonym (Russian or foreign). When stylistic synonyms are replaced with each other, the style of the statement changes, although the subject about which in question may remain the same. For example, the Russian word "trade" corresponds to " trade" and " commercial"In English, and accordingly" trade balance "will be" tradebalance"," Commercial law "-" commerciallaw", And" merchant ship "-" merchantship» .

Linguistic and cultural interference, misunderstanding of background vocabulary. When studying a foreign language, it is necessary to master not only the word, but also in a typified way in the national consciousness of the people - the bearer of the language and culture; otherwise, the concepts of one language are transferred to the concepts of another (GD Tomakhin). For example: "le premier étage" - "first floor" instead of "second" (in German: " derersteStock» – « first floor" instead of " second", In English -" firstfloor")," Les Invalides "-" invalids "instead of" Military History Museum in Paris ".

Sociocultural or cultural interference, according to A. V. Schepilova, is caused not by the system of the language itself, but by the culture that the given language reflects. Realities, phenomena, and norms of behavior that are similar in different cultures can cause interference. In other words, the business communication partner incorrectly perceives and interprets the phenomena and events of another culture, as well as the communicative behavior of his interlocutor, namely: perceives and evaluates the personality of the business partner through the prism of norms and values ​​accepted in his native linguistic society, through the prism of the model he has learned understanding of the world. For example, in France there is no custom to thank the hostess after a meal by getting up from the table. In Russia, however, they answer: "To your health!" In Russian, "please" is used as a courtesy formula, which has a nuance of meaning "not at all," which is used as an answer to "thank you." In English and French " please" and " s ’ilvousplaît»These meanings do not have. It is interesting to contrast the Russian common way of communication - "visiting" and French - meeting on the street, in cafes, bistros, restaurants. The French province, in particular, is unthinkable without a cafe that plays a huge social role in the life of a Frenchman. Home hospitality in France is not as developed as in Russia. Our students should know that you cannot run to a friend on the way abroad - this is considered tactless. It is customary to appear there by invitation.

The result of cultural interference can be an inappropriate reaction on the part of the Russian-speaking individual to the question “ Howareyou?"(" How are you? "), When the latter usually begins to give a detailed, often lengthy answer, describing his health, family circumstances, success or troubles at work, while English, in accordance with the requirements of culture, national character and mentality, allows practically only one answer: “ Fine,thankyou”(“ Thank you, good ”), even if the speaker is deeply unhappy.

The ability to enter into a communicative act requires the trainee to be able to navigate and manage a social situation. Both realities and conventions social behavior, vary significantly across cultures. Russian speech etiquette differs significantly from French. In France, it is not customary to congratulate each other on public holidays, so the French will be greatly surprised by the fact of their personal congratulations on any anniversary of the Great French Revolution. Only events of a personal nature in a person's life can serve as a reason for congratulations: birthday, engagement, marriage, wedding anniversary, birth of a child, promotion, etc. If in Russian speech etiquette when congratulating, it is most common to use such a stereotype as: “ Happy New Year to you! " (" Je te félicite à l’occasion de Nouvel An!"), Then the French language is characterized by:" Bonne Année!», « Une bonne et heureuse Année!», « Meilleurs voeux pour la Nouvelle Année!"It is very rare in France to congratulate you on your graduation from school and, in turn, it is customary to congratulate you on your arrival and return: -" Bienvenue!», « Bonretour!» .

In conclusion, I would like to emphasize that interference is the intervention of elements of one language system into another during language contact, and the result of this intervention can be either negative, as indicated by the above examples, or positive, contributing to adequate translation and mutual understanding, as well as the implementation of effective business communication. The attention of methodological scientists is mainly focused on the phenomenon of negative interference, its prediction and prevention, since “negative language material” (L. V. Shcherba) creates certain obstacles, slows down the process of business communication, which leads to misunderstanding and communication failures ... So, in order to achieve greater success, it is necessary not only to master the knowledge of a foreign language, but also to know the cultural characteristics of business partners.

Literature:

1. Alimov, V. V. Interference in translation. (on the material of professionally oriented intercultural communication and translation in the field of professional communication [Text] / V. V. Alimov. - M., 2005.

2. Alimov, V. V. Theory of translation. Translation in the field of professional communication [Text] / V. V. Alimov. - M., 2005.

3. Weinreich, V. Language contacts. State and problems of research [Text] / V. Weinreich. - B., 2000.

4. Galskova, ND Intercultural learning: the problem of the goals and content of teaching foreign languages ​​[Text] / ND Galskova // Inostr. lang. in the school. - 2004. - No. 1.

5. Klimov, V. V. Language contacts [Text] / V. V. Klimov // General linguistics: forms of existence, functions, history of language. - M., 1970.

6. Kuznetsova, IN Theory of lexical interference (based on the French language) [Text]: dis. ... Dr. Phil. Sciences / I. N. Kuznetsova. - M., 1998.

7. Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary [Text] / Ch. ed. V.N. Yartseva. - M., 2002.

8. Mechkovskaya, NB Social linguistics [Text] / NB Mechkovskaya. - M., 2000.

9. Minyar-Beloruchev, RK Methodical vocabulary. Explanatory dictionary terms of teaching methods of languages ​​[Text] / RK Minyar-Beloruchev. - M., 1996.

10. New illustrated encyclopedia [Text]: in 20 kn. - M., 2004. - Book. 7.

11. The latest dictionary of foreign words and expressions [Text]. - Mn., 2006.

12. Sorokina, SS Ways of overcoming and preventing grammatical interference of syntactic subtypes in the German speech of 1st year students of language faculties (based on the material of the control subtype) [Text]: author. dis. ... Cand. ped. Sciences / S. S. Sorokina. - L., 1971.

13. Ter-Minasova, S. G. Language and intercultural communication [Text] / S. G. Ter-Minasova. - M., 2000.

14. Formanovskaya, N. I. Speech etiquette... Russian-French correspondences [Text] / N. I. Formanovskaya, G. G. Sokolova. - M., 1989.

15. Haugen, E. Language contact [Text] / E. Haugen // New in linguistics. - Issue. 6. - M., 1972.

16. Shchepilova, A. V. Theory and methods of teaching French as a second foreign language [Text] / A. V. Shchepilova. - M., 2005.

How to analyze student difficulties caused by interference?

Interference, like positive transfer, can cover all levels of the language: phonetic, grammatical, lexical, spelling and significantly affect the development of speech activity in a new language. The types of interference are distinguished according to several criteria. (Kovylina L.N., Se-linker L., Makey V.F., Kitrosskaya I.I. and etc.).

Interference can be communicatively relevant, that is, it violates the mutual understanding of the interlocutors, and communicatively irrelevant, does not interfere with mutual understanding.

Interference can be synchronous and dynamic. Synchronous interference is unchanged. It always remains with the learner, for example, his accent. Dynamic interference precedes the first type chronologically, it reflects the process of the student's progressive movement in language acquisition and can be overcome.

According to the types associated with the specifics of speech activity, they distinguish between productive interference (with the generation of speech) and receptive interference (with understanding). Interference in productive types of speech activity is amenable to direct observation and is more pronounced than in receptive types of speech.

Depending on the nature of the deviation of speech from the norms, combinatorial and modifying interference are distinguished. Combinatorial interference is the presence in speech of elements of another linguistic system or the organization of linguistic elements according to the laws of a different system. Modifier interference leads to the appearance in a linguistic element of traits or signs of a correlating element of another system, for example, phonemic signs or signs of a grammatical class: pronunciation of French [t] with an English aspiration or assignment of generic characteristics to a French noun of its Russian counterpart.

Finally, the types of interference are distinguished in accordance with the subsystems of the language: according to the language and speech levels at which it occurs. This is interference sound(phonetic or phonological), spelling, punctuation, lexical, morphological, syntactic, semantic(realities, ambiguity, synonymy, homonymy), stylistic(functional styles), cultural or sociocultural.

In order to help the student to overcome the interference, the teacher must imagine what is borrowed from what language, to what level the imported element belongs and what the speaker does with it: a simple substitution or modification. The results of the analysis of the interfering influence of the native and the first foreign languages ​​on the second foreign language are entered in a table similar to Table. 4.

Table 4Analysis of the type of interfering influence of RL and RL1 on RL2

Speech activity Number of interference

Communication Situations From RY

Length of utterance (text) From IL1

V first of all, it is necessary to determine the speech level at which the interference occurs and to clarify which element of the other language the speaker uses and introduces into his speech. The "imported product" (matrix) can be an isolated element or structure of another language. Next, you should compare the original (borrowed element in the donor language) and what happened in the end in the recipient language.

Changing the unit of the second foreign language byconam of the native or first foreign is the modificationtions.

Substitution is possible in two forms: unit substitution and structure substitution. Unit substitution - this is the transfer of the unit of the donor language into the recipient language, sometimes with a change in the borrowed word according to the phonological or grammatical laws of the recipient language. Substitution structures is the transfer of the syntactic structure of the donor language to the recipient language. Here are some examples.

Cultural interference caused not by the language system itself, but by the culture that the given language reflects. Interference can be caused by realities, phenomena, norms of behavior similar in different cultures, for example, unequal forms of speech etiquette. So, in the Russian language "please" is used as a formula of politeness, which has a nuance of meaning "not for anything", which is used as an answer to "thank you". In English and French, "please" and "s" il vous plait "do not have these meanings. Depending on the order of language learning, the interference caused by this mismatch in speech practice will be more or less pronounced. more often it is carried out from IL1, since at the level of everyday culture European communities are in many respects similar. The degree of possession of the socio-cultural skills of the first foreign language is of great importance. The higher it is, the more likely a positive transfer.

Semantic interference arises due to the fact that the phenomena known to the speaker are reflected in the new language differently than in the already known languages. For example, Russian students call black bread in French noir instead of pain bis. English as the first foreign language increases the likelihood of interference (brown bread). By its nature, semantic interference is more often substitutional. It can be expressed in the introduction of not only foreign language units into speech, but also structures. A common type of this interference is students' attempts to word-for-word translate Russian or English proverbs, sayings and stable phrases into French.

Lexical interference is the insertion of foreign language vocabulary into speech in a new language. When learning French on the basis of Russian and English, the source of interference is usually the first foreign language. Some lexical units of foreign languages ​​are very similar, therefore, under similar conditions for mastering lexemes (in both cases, schooling) the probability of such interference is high. Lexical interference can be both modification and substitutional. Modification interference is, for example, the expansion or contraction of the meaning of a lexical unit of a new language by analogy with a similar unit in the donor language. Frequency substitutional interference is the transfer of similar lexical units into a new language with their processing according to the phonetic model of the recipient language, for example, the "invention" of the verb "rester" meaning "to rest" by analogy with English "to rest" 1.

Grammatical interference is also frequent in mastering a second foreign language, as well as lexical. The nature of grammatical interference differs in morphology and syntax.

Morphological interference is deviations from the norm observed in speech, associated with a violation of the categorical features of parts of speech, arising under the influence of the corresponding categories of the interfering language. Deviations from the norm can be both formal (errors in conjugation, for example) and functional (inadequate use of grammatical forms). Modification interference is a change in the form or function of the morpheme of the recipient language according to the grammatical model of the donor language.

Example. Assignment of generic characteristics of the Russian word to a French noun. Substitutional interference is the use of morphemes of the donor language in the recipient language, as well as the use of grammatical relations of the donor language for morphemes of the recipient language, or the neglect of the grammatical relations of the new language that do not have a prototype in already known languages. For example, in the field of French verb conjugation, students show a strong tendency to forget the -s ending in the present tense second person. This is the influence of the English language, where the second person of the verb does not have a specific ending, unlike the third person. A typical mistake, which is explained by morphological interference, is the incorrect control of the verb, that is, the use of inadequate prepositions between the verb and its complement, for example, the use of the French verb aider with the preposition a, by analogy with Russian “to help someone”. Many misuse of prepositions and articles are caused by this type of interference. So, the French expression "dans la rue" at the beginning of training always becomes an object of interference with Russian and English "on the street", "on the street." For students who know French, a similar interference is observed in English as a second foreign language: on the page five (instead of at the page five) by analogy with French a la page cinq and with Russian on page five.

Grammatical syntactic interference is associated with violations of the compatibility of the elements of the recipient language in the speech chain under the influence of the models of compatibility of the donor language. It manifests itself in the unconscious imitation of the syntactic structures of the RL or IN1. For example, the use of grammatical structures such as “une des plus grandes jamais vues dans la region” is a tracing paper from English “one of the biggest ever seen in the area”. The imitation of syntactic structures is expressed in the three most common types of syntactic structures. At first, it is plus-segmentation, i.e. an increase in the elements in the recipient language under the influence of the distributive rules (the rules for the compatibility of linguistic units) of the donor language. For example, the use of unnecessary negation: “Je ne vois pas aucune difference”. Secondly, it is minus segmentation, i.e., a decrease in the number of elements in the recipient language under the influence of the corresponding models of the donor language. For example, the exclusion of the linking verb etre in a compound nominal predicate. Finally, replication is possible, that is, the permutation of the elements of the recipient language model under the influence of the rules of the donor language. A common case of this interference is the setting of any French adjective before a noun, in a position typical of English and Russian 1.

Phonological interference is manifested in the intonation pattern of speech, its rhythm and articulation of phonemes. It is also noticeable in speech accentuation (deve "lopement instead of dev-elope" ment), a change in the type of assimilation (progressive in English, regressive in French), etc. Erroneous articulation together with intonation create a foreign accent that is difficult to overcome.

Articulation of native or first foreign phonemes instead of IL2 phonemes is a common phonetic interference of the substitutional type. For example, pronouncing a palatalized Russian phoneme [л "] instead of a correlated French sound. Modification phonetic interference occurs through the mixing of phonemic features and leads to the formation of specific allophones, which can be used to say with a high degree of certainty in what sequence foreign languages ​​were studied by a particular person. is, for example, the pronunciation of French [t] with English aspirations.

The reason for the emergence of this or that type of phonetic interference is the perception of phonemic features of a foreign language as distinctive and redundant 1. A distinctive feature differentiates (distinguishes) two phonemes of one language. For example, [o] and [b] differ in terms of nasality. Failure to recognize such a feature, its perception as not important (redundant) leads to incorrect articulation of the sound.

Graphic and spelling interference manifests itself in writing: the rules for spelling words of another language are transferred to the target language. This leads to spelling errors and graphic inconsistencies. This interference is very common, as a large percentage of common and related vocabulary in English and French provoke the student to make mistakes:

raison- reasonmontagne- mountain

jardin- garden heure- hour

recevoii- to receiveleqon- lesson

The influence of both the native and the first foreign languages ​​in teaching IL2 is observed in all areas of speech activity and at all levels of the linguistic system of the new language. The teacher must help the student to overcome the interference that disrupts communication, interferes with mutual understanding. The first step in this direction is to understand the cause of the interference.

Describe several types of interference.

Give examples of different types of interfering influence of Russian and English on the French language that you have come across in your teaching practice.

Practical tasks

Conduct a study with a group of your students on the interfering influence of Russian and English on the French they are learning. Use the table. 4. Make a conclusion about the frequency of different types of interference. Compare your findings with those of your fellow students who did a similar study with students in other age groups.

8. The problem of linguistic source

transfer for the second foreign language.

Error as a tool of analysis

Why is there no consensus about which language influences the learned second foreign language more?

How can you understand that a student transfers knowledge and skills from the native or the first foreign language to the second?

Can interference be prevented?

When studying a second foreign language, students actively use their educational and linguistic experience, primarily knowledge and skills from the field of their native and first foreign languages. In the scientific literature, conflicting judgments are expressed about which of these languages ​​is the priority source of transfer. Students can rely, first of all, on their knowledge of their native language, since they have already mastered their native language perfectly, and the system of the first foreign language is in the process of formation. On the other hand, the first and second foreign languages ​​are studied in similar conditions, completely different from the conditions of mastering a native language, which leads to the fact that students widely use knowledge and skills from the field of IL1.

The source of the transfer can be determined by observing the student's speech behavior, in particular, by analyzing the mistakes he makes. Given that not every error occurs due to interference, it is important to correctly identify the cause of the error and analyze those that are a consequence of the transfer. The error classification is shown in Figure 4.

The first stage of the classification is represented by the opposition of errors made at different stages of the generation of a speech utterance. Error in the formation of the program utterances arise already at the stage of planning a speech action. When programming a statement, the student relies on his ideas about the predicative categories of a non-native language (time, mood, etc.). The formation of these ideas is carried out through the native language. An inadequate understanding of the phenomenon of a foreign language, the identification of the facts of the native and foreign languages ​​leads to interference with the native language (error competenttion) 1 . Therefore, the interference arising at the level of coding of an utterance, at the level of design, is always due to the grammar of the native language. Erroneous programming of speech entails "typical" mistakes - very persistent, getting rid of which requires a revision of the formed ideas about the linguistic phenomenon.

Error in program implementation (execution error) occurs at the stage of performing a speech action, when the intention of an utterance is realized through the language. Errors in the implementation of the program refer to the superficial level of the formation of speech action; they can be accidental, like slips of the tongue, or more regular, for example, in case of fragile mastery of the material. Schoolchildren learning a second foreign language make many regular mistakes caused by interference with IL1. At this level of constructing an utterance, English as the first foreign language affects French more than the native language.

Scheme 4

Typology of linguistic mistakes in IL2, made under the influence of RL, IL1 and IL2

Typical and regular mistakes show that the student has created his own rule, which is different from the true one. The level of manifestation of the incorrect rule can be different. Erroneous programming of an utterance entails violations at the level of the system and at the level of the norm. Erroneous implementation - at the level of the norm or usus.

Examples, Russian students usually make mistakes in the use of Passe compose and Imparfait, because they misunderstand the systemic characteristics of these forms. Temporal and species parameters in Russian and French languages ​​have different significance: for Russians, unlike the French, the species characteristics of an action are very important. This prompts

pupils look for analogies in a foreign language. They assign specific characteristics to a given opposition. The typical use of Imparfait instead of Passe compose (What did you read? Qu "est-ce que tu lisais? Instead of Qu" as-tu lu?) Indicates a misconception on level systems language.

Typical, persistent errors also include the mistakes of Russian students in the use of verb tenses in conditional clauses. It looks like a diagram of the use of tenses and inclinations in subordinate clauses in Russian and French 1:

In Russian, when expressing a real condition, a temporal sign is mandatory and not required when expressing a conjectural condition, where a conditional mood is used that is not differentiable in terms of time. In French, on the contrary, when expressing a real condition, morphological forms of time are not needed, but are needed when expressing a conjectural condition. Thus, a Russian speaker is “doomed” to underestimate features 3 and 4 and overestimate features 1 and 2. Indeed, French learners have a strong tendency to say “si j” avais le temps ”instead of“ si j ”avais eule temps” and “si j "auraile temps" instead of "si j" avais le temps ". The interference is caused by the unconscious application of the verbal system of the native language. Despite the fact that in English there is a similar French scheme for the use of tenses and moods in conditional clauses, learners of a second foreign language make the same mistakes as learners of French as a first foreign language. This confirms that "Deep" structures,what moods and times are, are built under the influencethe native language. The phenomena of the "surface" syntaxsa, such as word order, verb control, consonantgenus and number can be an object of interference withsides of both IL1 and RYa.

At the level of the norm interference may appear due to different compatibility (phonemes, words) or mismatch of similar words by categorical affiliation (by gender, transitivity / intransition, recurrence / irreversibility, etc.). The use of constructions similar to the native or the first foreign language occurs. These can be errors of competence and errors of execution. For example, if a student, not knowing the gender of the French noun probleme, makes the mistake of assigning feminine characteristics to a word by analogy with their native language, this is a competency error. The same mistake, made involuntarily, unconsciously, but corrected on reflection, is a performance error.

At the level of the usus errors violate the authenticity of speech. The inscriptions on the doors in France Poussez - Tirez do not coincide with the Russians at the usus level: To myself - To myself. The Frenchman will say aller a pied, not marcher la. An Englishman, on the other hand, will say walk there, not go there by food. All bugs at the usus level are implementation bugs.

The next level of the diagram shows that errors in speech in a foreign language can be caused by the interfering influence of previously learned languages ​​and inadequate use of cognitive strategies while mastering the phenomena of a new language.

The cause of interference is the incorrect perception of distinctive features: underestimation of a feature, overestimation of its meaning or its inadequate interpretation. For example, the use of the verbs savoir and connaitre in French to express the meaning of “know” causes semantic interference in Russian students, due to the redundancy of the attribute in French.

Inappropriate application of instructional strategies caused by the student's previous experience v learning languages. These are: overgeneralization of the rule, its omission, syncretism (combination of incompatible rules), avoidance, simplification, etc. The presence, for example, of such errors as detail - detaux, by analogy with travail - travaux, indicates that the restrictions imposed by the rule are ignored and the overgeneralization of the rule plural nouns.

Identifying the cause of the error helps: 1) understand why the student does not use the rule or uses it erroneously, and correct the explanation strategy; 2) take a differentiated approach to assessing the error. In the early stages of learning, interference errors should be tolerated enough. Teaching a second foreign language is progressing rapidly and some students do not have time to "discover" the rules of the new system. Each of them retains its own rhythm of language acquisition, which depends on a group of psycholinguistic factors.

The student has the right to gradual learning, learning at his own pace. Modern technique takes the principle of the relative correctness of speech, the admissibility of errors that do not disrupt communication. Analysis of the cause of the error, undertaken together with the student, helps him to realize the fact of interference: its causes and ways of elimination. The ability to recognize mistakes forms the ability to identify them, critically analyze, and prevent. In human activity, evaluative, reflexive components are enhanced, implying the formation of skills in choosing strategies for activity, the optimal technology for achieving a result.

Negative carry-over (interference) generates several types of errors. When programming a statement and its implementation, the direction of the transfer is different, and the ways to overcome the interference are also different. The native language is more important in the programworld of utterances, the first foreign - when it is realzation. Correction of deep errors occurs through analysisand conscious control. Shallow - at the level of training and analogies. Transference is the most important characteristic of the learning process, but not all academic successes and problems in mastering a second foreign language are explained by its application. An analysis of the causes of errors allows us to distinguish between the “spheres of action” of transference and other cognitive strategies. Understanding the cause of the error is the way to get rid of it.

Control questions and tasks

What is the complexity of the question about the dominant source of transfer into the sphere of the second foreign language?

Explain from the point of view of psycholinguistics the influence of the native and the first foreign languages ​​on the second foreign language at different stages of the generation of the utterance.

What are the reasons for the appearance of typical mistakes in students' speech? How can they be overcome?

Which cognitive strategies most often lead students to linguistic errors? Give examples.

Practical task

Use Chart 4 to determine the likely causes and levels of multiple errors you have seen in your students learning French as a second foreign language.

Resume: From a methodological point of view, interference is a negative phenomenon (in terms of mastering a second language), but it is objective and inevitably arises as soon as multilingual groups enter into active contacts.

Key words: Bilingualism, interference, language, accent, composition, speech

Interference is the interaction of linguistic systems in conditions of bilingualism, which develops either through linguistic contacts or through the individual mastering of a non-native language; expressed in deviations from the norm and the system of the second language under the influence of the native. Interference manifests itself as a foreign language accent in the speech of a person who speaks two languages; it can be stable (as a characteristic of the speech of a collective) and transient (as a feature of someone's idiolect), interference can cover the levels of the language, but is especially noticeable in phonetics (accent in the narrow sense of the word).

The main source of interference is discrepancies in the systems of interacting languages: different phonemic composition, different rules of positional realization of phonemes, their compatibility, different intonation, different ratio of differential and integral features, different composition of grammatical categories and / or different ways of expressing them. The phenomenon of interference in its mechanism resembles the main diachronic changes in phonology. The relations between the mixed sounds of interacting languages ​​during interference are called diaphonic, and the sounds of the native language, replacing the sounds of the second, are called diaphons; similar phenomena are possible both in grammar and in vocabulary, in connection with which we can also talk about the relationship between diamorphy and diasemia. The term "interference" is also used to refer to its effect.

Interference in the past can leave traces in the language system in the form of substrate and superstrate (residual interference). The phenomenon of interference is observed in the process of direct contact of two (or more) languages, more precisely, the process of direct linguistic contacts is accompanied by interference. However, the very term "interference", which arose in physics, being transferred to the methodology of teaching a foreign language in the meaning of "inhibiting influence of the native language on the assimilation of a foreign language", does not quite correctly capture the essence of the linguistic phenomenon.

From a methodological point of view, interference is a negative phenomenon (in terms of mastering a second language), but it is objective and inevitably arises as soon as multilingual groups enter into active contacts. This phenomenon is most obvious in the process of teaching a second language: it emerges on the surface of someone else's speech of a native speaker in the form of a kind of product - obvious speech errors, qualified by the native speakers of the target language as a violation of linguistic norms.

However, the results of the interference may be less noticeable than the speech error. They can have a positive value when assessing the processes of interaction between two (or more) contacting languages. The foregoing applies equally not only to the contacts of two different system languages, but also to the processes of interaction of closely related languages ​​and to the same extent to the contacts of the language (taken as the basis of the literary language) with its dialects, as well as dialects with each other4. The phenomenon of interference, as evidenced by numerous studies, is possible at any linguistic level: lexical-semantic, phonetic-phonological, grammatical, derivational and even extremely formal - graphic. What is interference? The answer to this question depends on whether the researchers of which field of knowledge associated with the science of language are dealing with the problem of bilingualism - linguists, linguodidacticists or psychologists. In one, the initial position, they are all in solidarity: interference is a phenomenon that occurs during a collision, interaction of two languages. Linguists see the roots of interference in the very mechanism of language. Interference, considered in the linguistic aspect, is the phenomenon of interaction of structures and structural elements of two languages ​​in the process of communication of a bilingual population. A similar definition can be given by considering interference at the level of language and speech. Some studies equate the phenomena of interference and borrowing. However, these are not only different phenomena, but also in many respects directly opposite. Some specialists in the field of linguodidactics, considering this problem in relation to the tasks of teaching Russian as a second language, are not inclined to see it as a linguistic aspect outside the problems of methodology. Understanding by interference the transfer of knowledge, skills and abilities from the native language to the learner by schoolchildren, students, they argue that “... fight because it delays the teaching of the Russian language ... ". Others, examining interference in the methodological aspect, see in it “an erroneous identification and transfer of phenomena from the area of ​​the native language (language - source) to the area of ​​the studied language (language - receptor) or the transfer of relations between elements from one language system to another through the“ third system "(Intermediate)," different from both the native and the target language, which finds its real expression in the mistakes of students. "

In the latter case, the interaction of language systems in teaching a second language is considered as the interaction of oppositions. Scientists interested in the problem of interference in psycholinguistic terms proceed from the basic premises of the theory of language acquisition, the theory of speech communication, in particular, the generation speech utterance... Interference is perceived by them as a phenomenon accompanying the interaction of two language systems in the mind of a bilingual, as "violation of the rules for correlating contacting languages, which manifests itself in his speech in a deviation from the norm." However, extremely opposite and intermediate points of view on this phenomenon are possible. So, some as an "interferential" material investigate vocabulary borrowed from one language by another as a result of ethnic contacts between peoples and the interaction of their languages, and then underwent full or partial adaptation in the borrowing language. Thus, the term "interference" is more accurately interpreted by those linguists and psychologists who use it to refer to the results of the interaction of languages. The word "interference" comes from the Latin inter (between) and ferentis (carrying, carrying).

In linguistics, the phenomenon of interference occurs when three languages ​​come into contact: native, English (IL1) and French (IL2), i.e. under the influence of some language levels, the norms of another language structure are violated. The reason for the occurrence of interference is the fact that a person builds his speech according to the norms of his native language or a foreign language and establishes unusual connections and relations between individual linguistic facts of a foreign language. Scientific research show that the problems of multilingual learning are very complex and cover all levels (phonetic, lexical, grammatical, spelling) and generally affect the productive and receptive speech activity in teaching a foreign language.

In phonetics, the most common type of interference is analogous interference, associated with the direct transfer of the pronunciation skills of the English language to the corresponding French word. This applies to both vowels and consonants. For consonants, a typical mistake is the sound [r] or in words like régime, élegant, etc. interference by analogy is clearly seen in the shift of stress: on the first syllable in IL1 and on the last - in IL2 (´cadet - ca´det, ´canal - ca´nal, ´village - vil´lage, ´captain - capi´taine) ...

In the field of spelling, the spelling of analogous words requires special attention: reason - raison, garden - jardin, toreceive - recevoir, mountain - montagne, hour - heure, lesson - leçon. Spelling differences should not be explained on a case-by-case basis. The learner himself must choose the appropriate memorization strategy.

Lexical interference usually leads to literalism. So, for example, the word "journal, m" is understood as "journal" (revue, f), not "newspaper"; "Magazine, m" - "shop" (magasin, m), not "picture magazine"; "Démonstration, f" - "demonstration" (manifestation, f), not "manifestation, proof." Timely commentary on the "false friends of the translator", as well as work with the dictionary, help to prevent errors that arise by false analogy with existing Russian words.

The analysis of some cases of grammatical interference allows you to identify typical grammatical difficulties and ways to overcome them. This will allow finding rational ways of explaining and consolidating linguistic material. The phenomenon of grammatical interference can be predicted by comparing verb forms, revealing what are their similarities or differences.

The grammatical systems of the native language have a lot in common, which manifests itself both at the morphological and syntactic levels, namely: these languages ​​have the same parts of speech and members of the sentence. Differences are found when comparing any part of speech, for example, gender mismatch: table - unetable, chair - unechaise, book - unlivre . Possessive pronouns are of great difficulty.

In Russian, affiliation does not change depending on the person (I have my own car, you have your own apartment, etc.). in French, affiliation is defined by persons (j'aimavoiture, tuastonappartement). A huge difficulty is the system of qualifiers, in particular, articles. They are not in Russian, but in French they are more developed than in English, since they have gender and number forms. The verb is one of the most difficult grammatical forms. Currently has the greatest similarity in education and use. As a positive transfer from a foreign language to a foreign language, grammatical topics such as regular and irregular verbs, simple and complex tenses, tenses matching, passive voice, mood, impersonal forms of the verb can be considered. This explains the availability of mastering these grammatical structures. The past tense is more difficult.

There is one form in Russian, and four in English and French. There are discrepancies in the use of verb forms. To overcome grammatical interference, it is necessary to identify similarities and differences and establish interlanguage equivalents for their successful assimilation.

At the syntactic level, the phenomenon of interference is found in the violation of the word order. in Russian, it is free, and in French, the members of the sentence occupy a strictly defined place. Only in an interrogative sentence can the subject and predicate be reversed.

LIST OF USED LITERATURE

1. Alimov V.V. Interference in translation. M., 2005.
2. L.V. Shcherba Language system and speech activity. M., 1974.
3. Berzin F.M. B.N. Golovin General linguistics. Uch. allowance. Moscow: Education, 1979.
4. Reformatsky A.A. Introduction to linguistics / Ed. V.A. Vinogradov. M .: Aspect Press, 1996.
5. Barkhudarov L. S. Language and translation. - M .: International relations, 1975.
6. Komissarov V.N. A word about translation. - M .: International relations, 1973

In the speech of a bilingual, there is a mutual influence of the languages ​​that he uses. This mutual influence concerns both speech and language and can manifest itself in any linguistic subsystems: in phonetics, in grammar, in vocabulary. Any impact of one bilingual language on another, as well as the result of this impact, is called interference. Usually, interference is understood only as uncontrolled processes, and conscious borrowing is not referred to it.

The direction of interference can be different. The most common is the interference of the mother tongue in the second, but if the second language becomes the main one, then it can also affect the mother tongue. This is easy to see in the Russian speech of emigrants from Russia who have lived in a foreign-language environment for several years.

The permeability of different subsystems of the language is different and is associated with the direction of the interference. In the phonetic area, the intonation of the main language easily affects the intonation of the native additional, and in the system of phonemes and phonotactics, as a rule, the influence of the system of the native language on the second languages ​​is the leading one.

Phonological interference manifests itself in three aspects. 1. Misunderstanding phonemes (for example, removing the softness opposition in pairs such as pad/row in the Belarusian ethnolect of the Russian language). 2. Overdifferentiation phonemes (a Frenchman, for example, can distinguish between open and closed [e / e] in Russian). 3. Reinterpretation phonological differences (for example, the Germans tend to interpret the Russian opposition of voiceless and voiced consonants as the opposition of the strong / weak).

In the latter case, the Russian monolingual has the impression that the German is confusing the voiceless and voiced. Here is how, for example, D.I. Rasumnay shelovek ni-kakhta efo[Mitrofanushka] does not sateret, nikakhta does not quarrel with him; and he doesn’t get involved with clever frenzies, and so he’s going to get plugged. Paired voiced voices in most cases are presented here as deaf, but in some cases (with him) there is a sounding of the deaf.

In the field of phonotactics, the type of reduction of the native language most strongly affects the second language. Russians and Germans have a hard time mastering the pronunciation of final voiced consonants in English. Persons with a native Ukrainian language, on the contrary, transfer to Russian the familiar pattern, which preserves the voiced consonant at the end of a word and in the middle before the deaf: sign, sa [d] etc., as a result of which minimal pairs of the type grandpa / baby, shackle / darling. Similarly, in the second language, the type of vowel reduction characteristic of the native language is manifested. Russians often tend to reduce unstressed o-shaped vowels in second languages, and the "Caucasian" accent is characterized, in particular, by the pronunciation of a vowel a complete education in place of Russian unstressed she. The Bulgarian businessman, answering the question of how he started his business in a TV interview, said that for a start he bought money meaning saved up. Speaking Russian quite fluently, he retained the type of reduction unstressed vowels characteristic of his native language: if in Russian the phoneme<о>is reduced towards o-shaped sounds, then in Bulgarian - towards y-shaped sounds.

In the grammatical field, interference is often associated with the involuntary interpretation of the grammatical categories of the second language through the prism of the native one: the attribution of Russian nouns pain, corn, dog masculine gender in accordance with the norm of the native Belarusian, the use of the verb form in the second Polish language in accordance with the norm of the native Russian, the use of the definite or indefinite article in the second English language in accordance with the norm of the native French, etc.

If some grammatical category the native language in the non-native language is expressed irregularly, it is recognized as if it is absent altogether. In Turkic languages, the causative usually has a standard suffix expression; the irregularity of the formation of Russian causative verbs can give the Turkic-Russian bilinguals the impression that the expression of causation is unnecessary. So, phrases fall into school essays Gerasim ate the dog(vm. fed); The wave drowned the boat(vm. sunk)[Abdulfanova 1990: 171-172].

Interference can also show up in syntax. Despite the relative freedom of the Georgian word order, the position of some members of the proposal is rigidly fixed. In particular, in contrast to Russian, the governed word normally precedes the governor, and the predicate verb is in last place. This word order strongly interferes with the Russian speech of Georgians. Suggestions like It was evening when they rose in Barihaso; We entered the first classroom where the third graders found themselves; They were delighted when they saw acquaintances; A three-story boarding school located in the mountains delighted the hearts of visitors[Kevlishvili 1990], from the point of view of the normative Russian language, looking deviant to varying degrees, fit well into the local standard of the Russian language in Georgia and can be generated by local Russian monolinguals. The same applies to the use of Russian what in the function of the Georgian particle ra, expressing an urgent request in incentive sentences: Come to me! Give that book.

The influence of the second dominant language on the native language in the grammatical sphere is most pronounced in management models.

The greater the difference between languages, the theoretically more potential for interference, but in related languages ​​it is less noticeable to the speaker himself. Therefore, for bilinguals who are fluent and constantly use closely related languages, interference becomes almost inevitable. An excellent confirmation of this is the Russian translation of the classic monograph by W. Weinreich on linguistic contacts [Weinreich 1979], which is largely devoted to just the problems of interference. The translation was published in Kiev and contains many facts of interference Ukrainian language in Russian, cf .: we can show<...>on the following table; an influx of borrowings from French;<...>when they[children] melt adults; interdental[sound] [Weinreich 1979: 136, 152, 181, 203]. The last example is especially interesting; in Russian adjectives dental and interdental are issued in different ways, but the first of them is incomparably more frequent, in Ukrainian in both cases the endings are the same: (mig) dentition. Targeting more frequency Russian word and repulsion from Ukrainian led the translator to construct a hyper-correct form interdental.

Interference is a phenomenon characteristic of an individual, but with mass bilingualism, the same type of interference processes characterize the speech of many people, and, having become entrenched in idioletic linguistic systems, they also begin to affect the linguistic competence of monolinguals, which leads to linguistic changes. As soon as the interference is recognized in the language (becomes part of the standard of a certain language code), it is not felt in this code as something alien, that is, it ceases to be such for everyone except linguists.

All phenomena attributed by historical linguistics to the number of substratum and superstrate, owe their origin to interference. Even those diachronic changes, which are usually considered the result of intra-linguistic processes, can be explained by the interference interaction of various codes of the same language.