What elements make up the structure of sociological knowledge. Functions of sociological knowledge. Macrosociology and microsociology

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Student group 3902-21

Troitskaya Natalya Olegovna

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Checked: k.s. PhD, Associate Professor

Sinkovskaya Irina Georgievna

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Krasnoyarsk 2016

Record book number 1539028

PART No. 1……………………………………………………………………………………...3

1. Sociology as a science. The Structure and Levels of Sociological Knowledge……………………………………………………………………….......3

2. Object, subject of sociology. Functions. The place of sociology in the system of other sciences. The concept of paradigm……………………………………..…....7

3. Society as an integral system: features of the system approach (evolutionism, functionalism, determinism), individualistic theories.....…………….……………………………...11

4. Social institutions. Institutionalization of public life. Types, functions of social institutions……………………………........ 17

5. Social organization. Characteristics, functions of social organizations. Types, types of social organizations, their characteristics .............................................. ................................................. ..twenty

6. Social communities: definition, characteristics, types of mass communities and social groups……………………………...25

7. Sociology of personality. Socialization of the individual. Personality theories….....29

8. Deviant behavior: types of deviant behavior, causes, theories explaining the causes of deviation………………………….…….....33

9. Social structure and stratification. Types of strata: castes, classes, estates, slavery. The concept and types of social mobility………….39

10. Culture and society: definition of culture, types of cultures. The role of culture in social development: the theory of N.Ya. Danilevsky, Toynbee, Spengler……………………………………………………………………..46

11. Sociology of conflict. Types, types, forms, stages, forms of conflict regulation in the organization…………………………………...52

PART No. 2 (tables)………………………………………………………….…57

PART No. 3 Dictionary of sociological terms (Reference Appendix) ………………………………………………………………...62

Bibliographic list…………………………………………………..…66

Part #1

Sociology as a science. Structure and levels of sociological knowledge.

Sociology as a science

Sociology - the science of society(from lat. societas- society and gr. logos- knowledge, concept, doctrine) - the science of society or social science This term was introduced into science by the French scientist and philosopher of the New Age Auguste Comte (1798-1857), the founder of sociology as an independent science of society. Sociology was not limited to the problems of society as a whole, the driving forces of its development, and so on. It concerned all aspects of the development of society, including the problems of the state, politics, law, economics, morality, art, religion, and other aspects of social development, which later became the subject of study of individual sciences.

With the development of society, it lost the role of a unified universal theory of society. Political science, jurisprudence, political economy, ethics, aesthetics and a number of other sciences separated from it. From now on, she herself developed as an independent science. The subject of attention and study of sociology were the fundamental foundations for the development of society as an integral social organism.

Modern sociology is an independent science about society as an integral system, its subsystems and individual elements. Sociology also reveals and studies the laws of social development. It can be characterized as the science of the laws of functioning and development of social systems. Directions in sociology unite the ideas of the objective conditionality of the development of society by natural and social factors, as well as the natural nature of the historical process.

Sociology studies primarily the social sphere of human life: the social structure, social institutions and relationships, social qualities of the individual, social behavior, public consciousness, etc. At the same time, the object of study can be both society in its integrity and system, and its individual elements, for example, large and small social communities, personality, organizations and institutions, processes and phenomena, various spheres of human activity.

What distinguishes sociology from other social sciences? Only sociology studies society as an integral system. If economic, political, legal and other sciences study the patterns of processes within each of the spheres of life, then sociology tries to analyze and establish the corresponding patterns, which makes it possible to present society as a complex dynamic system consisting of a number of subsystems.

Sociology differs from other sciences not only in what it studies, but also in how it studies. Sociology is characterized by the study of society through the prism of human activity, determined by needs, interests, attitudes, value orientations, etc. The sociological approach allows not only to describe phenomena and processes, but also to explain them, to build models of human behavior and the development of society as a whole. An analysis of the dynamics of social processes makes it possible to establish trends in the development of society and develop recommendations for the purposeful management of social processes.

Structure of sociology

Sociology is a differentiated and structured system of knowledge. System - an ordered set of elements interconnected and forming a certain integrity. It is precisely in the clear structuring and integrity of the system of sociology that the internal institutionalization of science is manifested, characterizing it as independent. Sociology as a system includes the following elements:

1) social facts- scientifically substantiated knowledge obtained in the course of the study of any fragment of reality. Social facts are established through other elements of the system of sociology;

2) general and special sociological theories- systems of scientific sociological knowledge aimed at resolving the issue of the possibilities and limits of cognition of society in certain aspects and developing within certain theoretical and methodological areas;

3) branch sociological theories- systems of scientific sociological knowledge aimed at describing individual spheres of social life, substantiating the program of specific sociological research, providing interpretation of empirical data;

4) data collection and analysis methods– technologies for obtaining empirical material and its primary generalization.

However, in addition to the horizontal structure, systems of sociological knowledge are clearly differentiated into three independent levels.

1. Theoretical sociology(level fundamental research). The task is to consider society as an integral organism, reveal the place and role of social ties in it, formulate the basic principles of sociological knowledge, the main methodological approaches to the analysis social phenomena.

At this level, the essence and nature of the social phenomenon, its historical specifics, and the relationship with various aspects of social life are revealed.

2. Special sociological theories. At this level, there are branches of social knowledge that have as their subject the study of relatively independent, specific subsystems of the social whole and social processes.

Types of special social theories:

1) theories that study the laws of development of individual social communities;

2) theories that reveal the laws and mechanisms of the functioning of communities in certain areas of public life;

3) theories that analyze individual elements of the social mechanism.

3. Social engineering. The level of practical implementation of scientific knowledge in order to design various technical means and improve existing technologies.

In addition to these levels, macro-, meso- and microsociology are distinguished in the structure of sociological knowledge.

As part of macrosociology society is studied as an integral system, as a single organism, complex, self-governing, self-regulating, consisting of many parts, elements. Macrosociology primarily studies: the structure of society (which elements make up the structure of early society and which elements of modern society), the nature of changes in society.

As part of meso-sociology groups of people (classes, nations, generations) existing in society are studied, as well as stable forms of life organization created by people, called institutions: the institution of marriage, family, church, education, state, etc.

At the level of microsociology, the goal is to understand the activities of an individual, motives, the nature of actions, incentives and obstacles.

However, these levels cannot be considered separately from each other as independently existing elements of social knowledge. On the contrary, these levels must be considered in close relationship, since understanding the overall social picture, social patterns is possible only on the basis of the behavior of individual subjects of society and interpersonal communication.

In turn, social forecasts about a particular development of social processes and phenomena, the behavior of members of society are possible only on the basis of the disclosure of universal social patterns.

Theoretical and empirical sociology are also distinguished in the structure of sociological knowledge. The specificity of theoretical sociology is that it relies on empirical research, but theoretical knowledge prevails over empirical, since it is theoretical knowledge that ultimately determines progress in any science and in sociology too. Theoretical sociology is a set of diverse concepts that develop aspects of the social development of society and give their interpretation.

empirical sociology is more of an applied nature and is aimed at solving urgent practical issues of public life.

Empirical sociology, unlike theoretical sociology, is not aimed at creating a comprehensive picture of social reality.

This problem is solved by theoretical sociology by creating universal sociological theories. There is no core in theoretical sociology that has remained stable since its founding.

There are many concepts and theories in theoretical sociology: the materialistic concept of the development of society by K. Marx is based on the priority of economic factors in the development of society (historical materialism); there are various concepts of stratification, industrial development of societies; convergence, etc.

However, it must be remembered that certain social theories are not confirmed in the course of the historical development of society. Some of them are not realized at this or that stage of social development, others do not stand the test of time.

The specificity of theoretical sociology is that it solves the problems of studying society on the basis of scientific methods of cognition of reality.

In each of these levels of knowledge, the subject of research is specified.

This allows us to consider sociology as a system of scientific knowledge.

The functioning of this system is aimed at obtaining scientific knowledge both about the entire social organism and about its individual elements that play a different role in the process of its existence.

Levels of sociological knowledge

Another hallmark of sociology as a science is its range of research methods. In sociology method- this is a way of constructing and substantiating sociological knowledge, a set of techniques, procedures and operations of empirical and theoretical knowledge of social reality.

There are three levels of methods for studying social phenomena and processes.

First level covers general scientific methods used in all humanitarian fields of knowledge (dialectical, systemic, structural-functional).

Second level reflects the methods of related sociology of the humanities (normative, comparative, historical, etc.).

Methods of the first and second levels are based on the universal principles of knowledge. These include the principles of historicism, objectivism and consistency.

The principle of historicism involves the study of social phenomena in the context of historical development, their comparison with various historical events.

The principle of objectivism means the study of social phenomena in all their contradictions; It is unacceptable to study only positive or only negative facts. The principle of consistency implies the need to study social phenomena in an inseparable unity, to identify cause-and-effect relationships.

TO third level include methods that characterize applied sociology (survey, observation, analysis of documents, etc.).

Actually sociological methods of the third level are based on the use of a complex mathematical apparatus (probability theory, mathematical statistics).

Thus, sociology is a multidimensional and multilevel system of scientific knowledge, which consists of elements that concretize general knowledge about the subject of science, research methods and ways of its design.

Similar information.

"The Structure of Sociological Knowledge"

I. Objects of sociology and elements of sociological knowledge

The attention of a sociologist can be directed to any phenomenon of social life. It could be society as a whole with its inherent diverse social ties and relations between people, material and spiritual culture, or one of the spheres of public life - economic, social, political, spiritual. It can be big or small social groups and national communities of people(classes, nations, nationalities, professional and demographic groups, including various groups of youth, women, representatives of the older generation, production and other teams, political parties, trade unions, creative organizations).

The focus of sociology can be individuals, their needs, interests, values, and families as cells of society and the so-called small groups with their stable and unstable socio-psychological ties, including interest groups, neighbors, friends, etc. As we can see, the range of objects of sociology as a science is very wide and varied, which to a large extent determines the structure of sociological knowledge.

The structure of sociological knowledge - not just a collection of information, ideas and scientific concepts about social phenomena and processes, but a certain orderliness of knowledge about society as a dynamically functioning and developing social system.

It appears as a system of interrelated ideas, concepts, views, theories about social processes at different levels, whether it is the life of individuals, social groups or society as a whole.

Sociological ideas and scientific knowledge, as well as their structure, are formed depending on a number of factors, including:

The range of objects studied by sociology;

The depth and breadth of scientific generalizations and conclusions drawn within the framework of sociological theories based on the analysis of data on certain social phenomena and processes, etc.

Based on objects, to the study of which sociology is directed, then one should start with society as a whole, because a person, like any social group, social organizations and institutions, material and spiritual culture - in a word, everything that exists in society is a product of its development and has a social nature . And people relate to natural nature mainly on the basis of their social - economic, aesthetic and other needs and interests. Even human needs for food or procreation are not purely natural. These are his biosocial needs in their content. They have a biological basis, but act in a social form and are satisfied in social ways on the basis of the development of material production and most often within the family.

approach to any social phenomenon as element society and through society itself, considering it as part of a functioning and developing social system is one of the most important methods of scientific sociology.

Thus, the initial element of the structure of sociological knowledge is knowledge about society as an integral social organism. This is knowledge about the system of social relations, their content and the mechanism of their interaction. Understanding the nature and essence of social relations allows a deeper understanding of the essence of the interaction of social subjects in society. Knowledge about society includes an understanding of the objective laws of its development, ideas about the main spheres of society's life and their interaction, about the mutual influence of material, political and spiritual culture.

Another element of the structure of sociological knowledge is the relationship of ideas about the functioning and development of certain spheres of public life, including economic, social, political, spiritual. A sociologist should not replace an economist, political scientist, jurist, ethicist or art critic. He has his own angle of view on the processes taking place in these spheres of public life. First of all, he explores the possibilities of life and social self-affirmation in each of these areas of the individual or social groups, including youth, various groups of the working class, the peasantry, the intelligentsia, employees, and entrepreneurs.

knowledge about the social composition of the population of the country and the social structure of society, those. about classes, large and small social, professional and demographic groups, their place and interaction in the system of economic, social and political relations, as well as about nations, nationalities, other ethnic groups and their relations with each other.

Another element of the structure of sociological knowledge is scientific ideas, views, theories related to political sociology. Here the sociologist's attention is directed to understanding the real position of various social groups in society in the system of political relations and, above all, in the system of power relations. It is equally important for a sociologist to find ways and means for the subjects of civil society to exercise their socio-political rights and freedoms, sufficient to really influence the political processes taking place in society. From this point of view, the activities of various political parties and movements, the functioning of the entire political system of society.

An important element in the structure of sociological knowledge is scientific ideas and conclusions of sociologists about the activities of social institutions existing in society, such as the state, law, church, science, culture, institutions of marriage, family, etc.

social institution in sociology it is customary to call something similar to an organ in a living organism: it is a node of people's activity that remains stable over a certain period of time and ensures the stability of the entire social system 1 . Each specific “node” of sustainable and highly significant human activity plays an important role in the functioning of society. Of course, there are objective prerequisites for the emergence and functioning of each of these institutions. They have a corresponding internal organization and take their place in public life, while performing specific functions. Interacting with each other, they ensure the functioning of society.

There are other elements of the structure of sociological knowledge, identified in accordance with the objects of study of sociology, for example, scientific ideas, views and theories regarding the life of production teams, the so-called informal groups and organizations, as well as small groups of interpersonal communication and individuals.

All the listed scientific ideas, concepts, views and theories about various social phenomena and processes are interconnected and form a single and rather complex structure of sociological knowledge, which more or less adequately reflects all aspects of social life in their connection and interaction and, ultimately, scientifically reproduces society as an integral social system. All this constitutes the structure of sociology as a science and as training course which is reflected in this textbook.

II. Levels of sociological knowledge

Based on the scale reflected in sociological views and theories of social phenomena, separate levels can be distinguished in the structure of sociological knowledge:

General sociological theories, or general theoretical sociology;

Special sociological theories, which are often characterized as private;

Concrete sociological research.

These three levels of sociological knowledge differ in the depth of the sociological analysis of social phenomena and in the breadth of the generalizations and conclusions made.

1. General sociological theories

These theories concern, as a rule, deep or, as they say in sociology, essential moments in the development of a particular society and the entire historical process. At the level of general sociological theories, scientific generalizations and conclusions are made about the deepest causes of the emergence and functioning of certain social phenomena, about the driving forces of the development of society, etc. At the general theoretical level, theories of social, primarily industrial, human activity are formed, the role of labor in the development of society is revealed (which was shown G. Hegel, K. Saint-Simon, K. Marx and other thinkers).

An important section of general theoretical sociology is the theory of social relations, revealing the nature and content of economic, political, legal, moral, aesthetic, religious and other relations between social subjects.

At the general theoretical level of sociological analysis, the essence of social relations, their specific role and mechanism of interaction are revealed, and social relations are characterized depending on their subjects (social-class and national relations, relations between society and the individual, etc.). The totality of all the above relations forms a certain society, which acts as a system of these relations. Their most complete coverage and deep scientific analysis are possible only at the level of general sociological theories or (which is the same) general theoretical sociology.

At the same level, the interaction of economic, social, political, spiritual and other spheres of society is studied, their interrelations and interdependencies are revealed (for example, the impact of the modern scientific and technological revolution on the social structure of society, the sphere of science and culture). Interactions between economics and politics, politics and law, production and environmental spheres of society, industrial and agricultural production, etc. are analyzed.

At the level of general sociological theories, each social phenomenon is considered from the point of view of its place and role in society, its diverse connections with other phenomena. It is considered in the system of interaction of global social factors which are the above social relations and the corresponding spheres of public life, as well as the objective laws of the development of society. This is the essence and main feature of the study of social phenomena and processes at the level of general theoretical sociology, acting as a set, more precisely, a system of general sociological theories.

2. Special or particular sociological theories

These theories concern individual spheres or private public life, social groups and sociological institutions. Their cognitive perspective is much narrower than that of general sociological ones, and is limited, as a rule, to one or another subsystem of society. These can be, for example, the economic and social spheres of society. In this case, the problems of socio-economic relations, the production activities of people, mainly its social aspects, as well as working conditions and social protection of various categories of the population, issues public education, health care, life and recreation of people, social security, etc.

The objectives of the study are to, based on the use of statistical materials, data from sociological studies and other information, to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the indicated areas of public life or their individual aspects, as well as to draw scientifically based conclusions about the optimal solution of existing problems, including those related to increasing the efficiency of managing socio-economic processes. Similar goals are also set when the objects of sociological study are the political and spiritual spheres of society. Of course, in each such case, specific goals are also pursued, due to the peculiarities of the processes taking place in one or another sphere of public life.

In the process of applying special sociological theories, it is possible (and often necessary) to turn to general sociological theories in order to comprehend some social phenomena or events from a broader position, within the framework of the whole, which is society. But even in this case, the main attention will be paid to the sphere of the life of society in which these events take place, first of all, to the analysis of the mechanism of functioning of this sphere, the processes occurring in it, as well as to the solution of the specific problems that arise here. social problems.

In accordance with their nature, special sociological theories organically combine the theoretical and empirical(i.e. aimed at the analysis of current practical data) research levels. These theories substantiate the methods of direct practical influence of people on certain aspects of their lives, industrial, political and other activities, their social, family and personal life. They also justify the ways , improvement of activities, various social institutions. In other words, special sociological theories are aimed at solving practical problems of today and the near future.

We list some of the main parameters of special sociological theories and their applications. This:

The initial theoretical and methodological provisions on which these theories are built and which form the basis of ongoing research and processing of their results;

The system of concepts operated by special sociological theories.

Formulated theoretical generalizations and conclusions, as well as scientific and practical recommendations arising from research and meaningful within the framework of special sociological theories, relating to a wide range of problems, including improving the management of various socio-economic, political and spiritual processes.

The specificity of these theories lies precisely in the fact that they are organically connected with practice.

Among the branches of knowledge, the main content of which is special sociological theories, one can single out the sociology of labor, social class relations, the sociology of youth and the sociology of the family, ethnic sociology, or the sociology of national relations, the sociology of the city and the sociology of the countryside, the sociology of political relations, the sociology of religion, the sociology of culture, sociology of personality. In all these cases, the object of sociological study is certain spheres of social life, which differ from each other both in the content of the social relations that dominate in them at according to acting subjects, which are classes, nations, youth groups, urban and rural populations, political parties and movements, etc.

Each of the above branches of sociology has been developed to some extent by the efforts of scientists from different countries. In particular, these are the theories of functionalism and social action of American sociologists. T. Parsons And R. Merton, based largely on concepts E. Durgheim, M. Weber And P. Sorokina, as well as socio-psychological research, starting, say, with the works G. Tarda And L.F. Ward right up to the works of living scientists in this field, primarily in the USA and Western Europe, as well as on research in the field of political and spiritual culture carried out by G. Almond, P Sorokin and other prominent contemporary sociologists of the West

Developing special sociological theories, which R. Merton characterizes in detail as "theories of the middle level", we get the possibility of subject analysis various areas social life, human activities and the functioning of social institutions. As a result, it is possible to obtain data of great theoretical and practical importance.

3. Specific sociological requirements

The next level of sociological knowledge is represented by concrete sociological research. They are conducted in the form of questionnaires, oral surveys, observations, etc. Research can be carried out within the framework of sociology, economic, legal and other sciences in order to obtain objective data on various aspects of social reality, as well as to study public opinion, i.e. obtaining information about the attitude of the population (including individual social groups) to certain events in public life, their opinions on certain social problems, ways to solve them, etc. The data of these studies can serve as a basis for developing recommendations regarding the solution of current and future tasks of public and state life, the activities of various social groups, labor and other collectives, political parties and movements. They can be comprehended at the level of special and general sociological theories and used in solving urgent, sometimes very significant problems in the development of society.

By providing objective information about certain aspects of social life, specific sociological research can help identify existing contradictions, as well as trends in the development of certain social phenomena and processes. Both are very important for the scientific understanding and solution of social problems, the management of social processes, or, in any case, for their comprehensive consideration.

The main thing in a concrete sociological research is to obtain objective information about what is happening in society, some of its areas and how it is perceived by people. Concrete sociological research constitutes an important area empirical sociology, aimed at studying the everyday practical activities of people, its objective and subjective aspects. They consist in the collection of facts and materials, observations and experiments, other ways of obtaining data on social reality and their comprehension. All these are moments of empirical knowledge of reality.

At present, under the influence of the growth of education and culture, the development of science and technical means of cognition, empirical (experimental) knowledge people from various aspects of social reality. The theoretical components of empirical knowledge and its connection with theoretical thinking are multiplied and strengthened.

Empirical knowledge of the phenomena of social life has been formed into a special science - empirical sociology, which is developing primarily in the United States and European countries. It has also been developed in our country.

The levels of sociological knowledge described above - general sociological theories, special sociological theories and concrete sociological research - are not isolated from each other. On the contrary, they organically interact with each other, forming a single and integral structure of sociological knowledge, although their role in this structure is not the same. In the course of specific sociological research, various kinds of information are obtained about the current processes of modern life, which is then comprehended at the level of special and general sociological theories. This makes it possible to scientifically understand the processes taking place in certain spheres of public life and in society as a whole. At the same time, general sociological theories are used to solve problems at the level of special sociological theories and concrete sociological research.

1. Object and subject of sociology

Sociology as an independent science arose in the first half of the 19th century, and its founder was the French philosopher Auguste Comte. . The term "sociology" was introduced in 1839 and literally means "science of society".

Like any science, sociology has its own object and subject of study. Under object understand the area of ​​reality that is to be studied.

Consequently, object sociology is society. The subject of research is usually understood as a set of characteristics, qualities, properties of an object that are of particular interest to a given science. The subject of sociology is the social life of society, that is, a complex of social phenomena arising from the interaction of people and communities.

Summarizing, we can conclude that subject sociology- this social life, those. a complex of social phenomena arising from the interaction of people and communities, their social connections and social relations, ensuring the satisfaction of all basic needs.

The categories of sociology can be divided into four groups:
1. General sociological categories describe the whole variety of social life phenomena, reflect all possible states of social processes at the macro level.
2. Categories of the middle level are applied to the phenomena and processes of individual spheres of society.
3. Micro-level categories used to describe the corresponding standard of living in society.
4. Categories of specific sociological research (applied sociology) are used to describe the process of conducting specific sociological research.

social patterns- objectively existing, systematically manifesting significant connections of social phenomena and processes. Through the identification and systematization of social patterns, sociologists build sociological theories- systems of sociological generalizations based on verifiable empirical data.

3. Structure and levels of sociological knowledge

In modern sociology, there are three approaches to the structure of this science.

First requires the presence of 3 interrelated components:

1) empiricism, i.e. complex of sociological research focused on the collection and analysis real facts social life using a special technique;

2) theories - a set of judgments, views, models, hypotheses that explain the processes of development of the social system as a whole and its elements;

3) methodology - a system of principles underlying the accumulation, construction and application of sociological knowledge.

Second approach- target. Fundamental sociology solves scientific problems related to the formation of knowledge about social reality, description, explanation and understanding of the processes of social development.

Applied sociology is focused on practical use. This is a set of methods, specific programs and recommendations aimed at achieving a real social effect.

Third Approach divides science into macro- and microsociology. The first studies large-scale social phenomena; the second is the spheres of direct social interaction.

Levels: (theoretical, empirical, intermediate level)

Theories of the middle level(Robert Merton) occupy an intermediate position between the theoretical and empirical levels.

All middle-level theories are grouped into 3 groups.

theory of social institutions (family, science, education, politics, etc.);

theory of social communities (sociology of small groups, strata, layers, classes);

theory of social change and processes (sociology of conflicts, sociology of urbanization, etc.).

4. Functions of sociological science

cognitive function.
Sociology studies and explains the patterns of social development at various levels of the social system. The implementation of the cognitive function also includes the development of the theory and methods of sociological research, techniques for collecting and processing sociological information.
predictive function.
Based on the knowledge of the laws of social development, sociology is able to build short-, medium- and long-term forecasts in the field of demography, social structures, urbanization, living standards, election campaigns, etc.
Social design function.
The task of social design includes the development of optimal models of not only the organization of various social communities, but also management to achieve the goals.

Socio-technological function.
A typical example is the creation of social development services at enterprises, in large organizations where professional sociologists work. They are engaged, for example, in identifying potential staff turnover, studying the socio-psychological situation in teams, and managing social conflicts.

managerial function.
Without sociological training and sociological knowledge, it is practically impossible to engage in management in modern conditions. For example, it makes no sense to start any change in the mode of work of the work collective without analyzing undesirable social consequences, otherwise the scheme works: they wanted the best, but it turned out as always.

Ideological function.
Sociology carries a certain ideological burden, if only because it explains the state of society, social processes, studies public opinion, lifestyle, the rating of political figures, and so on.

5 Sociology in the system of social sciences and humanities

Sociology occupies a special place in the system of the humanities. This is due to the following reasons:
1) it is a science about society, its phenomena and processes;
2) it includes the general sociological theory, or the theory of society, which acts as the theory of all other human sciences;
3) all the humanities that study various aspects of the life of society and man always include social aspect, i.e., those laws that are studied in a particular area of ​​public life and are implemented through the activities of people;
4) the technique and methods of studying a person and his activity, which are developed by sociology, are necessary for all social and human sciences, since they are used by them for their research;
5) a whole system of research has developed, which is carried out at the intersection of sociology and other sciences. These studies are called social studies (socio-economic, socio-political, socio-demographic).
Sociology is connected with history. Sociology makes extensive use of historical data.
Sociology closely interacts with psychology.
Sociology is connected with all social sciences. From this came various socio-economic, socio-demographic and other studies.

6 Reasons (prerequisites) for the emergence of sociology:

1. Antiquity: the appearance of the first problems related to interaction in groups, associations, etc.

2. Renaissance, Enlightenment: the ability to scientifically predict the behavior of people and the ability to stimulate the development of production.

3. History: settlement of social conflicts.

7. AUGUST COMTE - THE FOUNDER OF SOCIOLOGY

Auguste Comte(1798-1857) - French philosopher, sociologist, popularizer of science, founder of the school of positivism, social reformer, who left a great literary heritage, including the six-volume Course in Positive Philosophy (1830-1842).

The main merit of the French scientist Auguste Comte is that he first introduced the concept of sociology as a science into scientific use. However, Comte was never able to determine the subject of study of sociology, to outline the main theoretical directions of research. This was prevented by two main factors.

Firstly Comte was greatly influenced by the natural sciences, especially physics and biology. He called sociology social physics, and identified society with a biological organism.

Secondly, Comte recognized only the so-called positive aspects of sociology. In his opinion, sociology should study only the facts of the manifestation of social reality. Such an approach can make sociology a positive science, which is inherent in reality, usefulness, reliability and accuracy. This view is called scientific positivism.

As conceived by Comte, sociology should be divided into social statics, which include the study of the individual, family, society, and social dynamics, which includes social processes occurring in human society.

According to Comte's theory, social dynamics is a theory of progress. According to this theory, society has gone through three main stages or eras.

IN theological age people believed in one god. A distinctive feature of this era is the wars of conquest as the main occupation of the population.

IN metaphysical age there is a change in the system of values, objects of spiritual culture begin to have priority. A civil society with a developed legislative system is emerging.

IN positive era the spiritual management of society is carried out by scientists. In other words, at the highest stage of the development of society, all processes are managed by sages and high professionals.

8. The main directions of Western sociological thought XIX-beginning XX century

1. Positivist. The founder of positivism was Auguste Comte, whose main work is the Course in Positive Philosophy (1830-1842). Supporters of positivism believed that all genuine, positive (positive) knowledge is the result of the natural sciences and preached the rejection of speculative and abstract reasoning about society.

2. Economic. The founder - Karl Marx (1818-1883), who created the doctrine of the socio-economic formation, singled out economic relations as the main engine of social processes.

3. Biological. The ancestor is considered to be the English philosopher and sociologist Herbert Spencer (1820-1903). Spencer's sociological theory is based on two principles: a) the understanding of society as a living organism that copies biological organisms; b) the idea of ​​social evolution, based on the notion of competition in society, adequate to the struggle for existence in the biological environment (social Darwinism).

4. Objectivist. Its main representative was Émile Durkheim (1858-1917). In his theory of society, he recognized the primacy of social reality and the secondary nature of individuals subordinate to it. Consequently, sociology should study social phenomena, processes and facts, and not ideas about them.

5. Understanding sociology. The founder is the German sociologist, lawyer, historian Max Weber (1864-1920). At the heart of Weber's sociology is the concept of "ideal type" - this is not an objective reality, but a theoretical construction, an image-scheme. Weber's doctrine of ideal types formed the basis of "understanding sociology", i.e. sociology, which comprehends both the actual actions themselves and what individuals put into them.

6. Psychological direction in sociology (G. Tarde, G. Le Bon) Psychological factors were given paramount importance in social development - the behavior of the crowd, imitation, social instincts, etc.

7. Mechanistic direction (founder G.K. Kerry). It is characterized by the transfer of the laws of mechanics of I. Newton to social life.

8. Demographic trend, influenced by the ideas of the English political economist T. Malthus. The decisive role in the development of society was played by the size and density of the population.

9. The geographical direction (founder G. Bockl) exaggerated the role of the geographical factor in the social development (location of the country, climate, the role of rivers and seas, etc.)

9. Stages of formation and development of sociology as a science

4 stages of development of sociology:

1. 60s - 90s of the 19th century.

The development of classical sociology. The emergence of sociology is associated with the name of the French philosopher Auguste Comte(1798-1857), who coined the term "sociology" itself. Comte, in the general classification of sciences, placed sociology at the very top. Sociology must discover the universal laws of the development and functioning of society. She makes her discoveries using four methods: observation, experiment, comparison and historical method.

2. 90s of the 19th century - 30s of the 20th century.

Pitirim Sorokin (Russian-American sociologist), Talcott Parsons (American).

The main efforts of scientists have always been focused on solving practical problems:

What are the motives (what motivates human activity) of people's behavior;

How best to exercise social control and management;

· How to overcome conflicts and maintain stability in society;

· How to ensure the spirit of cooperation of people in production.

3. 30s - 60s of the 20th century.

4. The 60s of the 20th century are our time.

Modern stage. Service delivery comes first.

10 . The development of sociology as a science in Belarus fell on the 20s. XX century.

In 1921, the Department of Sociology and Primitive Culture was opened at BSU. In 1923, the first course of lectures on sociology in the republic was published at the Belarusian State University. The Institute of Belarusian Culture, established in January 1922, began to engage in social research. Quite serious works on sociology were published: S. Ya. Wolfson "Sociology of Marriage and Family" (1929); S. Z. Kanzenbogen "Marxism and Sociology" (1925). The works of Belarusian sociologists were not particularly original; they either reproduced the ideas of Western sociology or continued the Marxist tradition. The exception was the work of S. M. Vasileisky, devoted to the analysis of methods for collecting and processing social information.

In the mid 1930s. sociological research in Belarus, as well as in the USSR as a whole, was discontinued, and until the mid-1950s.

The development of Belarusian sociology has continued only since the mid-1960s. Problematic sociological laboratories are being created at BSU and the Institute of National Economy.

In 1968, within the Institute of Philosophy and Law of the Academy of Sciences of the BSSR, a sector of specific social research was created, headed by Professor G.P. Davidyuk. In 1970, the sector was transformed into a department of social research.

In early 1978, a sector of methodological problems of sociological research was created at the Institute of Philosophy and Law of the Academy of Sciences of the BSSR, in January 1989 it was transformed into the Center for Sociological Research. In 1989, a department of sociology was opened at the Faculty of Philosophy and Economics of the Belarusian State University, a department of sociology was created under the guidance of Professor A. N. Elsukov.

In 1990, an independent Institute of Sociology emerged within the structure of the Academy of Sciences of Belarus, the creation of which contributed to strengthening the base of sociological research. In 1991, the sociological laboratory of BSU was transformed into a sociological center.

The history of sociology in Belarus has begun a new stage in its development. Such leading sociologists as A.N. Danilov, D.G. Rotman, I.V. Kotlyarov, S.V. sociology of religion, significant achievements have been made in the field of sociology of science.

11. The concept of "society" in the history of social thought

Today, there are two approaches to understanding society. In the broad sense of the word society- this a set of historically established forms of joint life and activity of people on earth. In the narrow sense of the word society- This is a specific type of social and state system.

E. Durkheim defined society as supra-individual spiritual reality based on collective ideas. From the point of view of M. Weber, society is the interaction of people who are the product of social actions. K. Marx presents society as a historically developing set of relations between people that develop in the process of their joint actions. Another theorist of sociological thought, T. Parsons, believed that society is a system of relations between people based on norms and values ​​that form culture.

Thus, it is easy to see that society is a complex category characterized by a combination of various features. The most complete list of characteristic features of society was singled out by an American sociologist E. Shiels. He developed the following features characteristic of any society:

1) it is not an organic part of any larger system;

2) marriages are concluded between representatives of this community;

3) it is replenished at the expense of the children of those people who are members of this community;

4) it has its own territory;

5) it has a self-name and its own history;

6) it has its own control system;

7) it exists longer than the average life span of an individual;

8) unites him general system values, norms, laws, rules.

Considering all these features, we can give the following definition of society: it is a historically formed and self-reproducing community of people.

This definition allows us to distinguish the concept of society from the concept of "state"

12. Society as an integral social system

Society is a complex system.
A system is an ordered set of elements interconnected and forming a certain integral unity. Undoubtedly, society is a social system, which is characterized as a holistic formation, the elements of which are people, their interaction and relationships that are stable and reproduced in the historical process, passing from generation to generation.
Thus, the following can be distinguished as the main elements of society as a social system:
1) people;
2) social connections and interactions;
3) social institutions, social strata;
4) social norms and values.
As with any system, society is characterized by close interaction of its elements.

13. Signs of society

In modern sociology, a society is considered to be an association of people, which has the following features:

1) is not part of any other larger system;

2) its replenishment is mainly due to childbearing;

3) has its own territory;

4) has its own name and history;

5) exists longer than the average life expectancy of an individual;

6) has a developed own culture.

Thus, we can say that society is people interacting in a certain territory and having a common culture. Culture is understood as a certain set of symbols, norms, attitudes, values ​​inherent in a given social group and transmitted from generation to generation.

14. Typology of societies

The very first typology of societies was proposed by the ancient Greek thinkers Plato and Aristotle. According to their views, all societies can be divided according to the forms of government into monarchies, tyrannies, aristocracies, oligarchies, and democracies.
In modern sociology, within the framework of this approach, totalitarian, democratic and authoritarian societies are distinguished.
Within the framework of Marxism, the basis for the classification of societies is the mode of production of material goods. On this basis, six types of societies are distinguished:
1) a primitive communal society, which is characterized by a primitive appropriating mode of production;
2) Asian society, which is distinguished by a special type of collective ownership of land;
3) a slave-owning society, a specific feature of which is the ownership of people - slaves and the products of their labor;
4) a feudal society based on the exploitation of peasants attached to the land;
5) bourgeois society, in which there is a transition to the economic dependence of formally free wage workers;
6) communist society, which arises as a result of the establishment of an equal attitude of all to ownership of the means of production through the elimination of private property relations.
According to another typology, which today occupies a leading place in sociology, one can distinguish between traditional, industrial and post-industrial societies. A traditional society is a society with an agrarian way of life, sedentary structures and a method of socio-cultural regulation based on traditions.
A feature of this type of society is the low level of production rates.

The term "industrial society" was first coined by Henri Saint-Simon (1760-1825).
The theory of industrial society is based on the idea that as a result of the industrial revolution, a transformation of a traditional society into an industrial one takes place. An industrial society is characterized by the following features:
1) a developed and complex system of division of labor and professional specialization;
2) mechanization and automation of production and management;
3) mass production of goods for a wide market;
4) high development of means of communication and transport;
5) growth of urbanization and social mobility;
6) an increase in income per capita and qualitative changes in the structure of consumption;
7) formation of civil society.
In the 60s. 20th century in sociology, the theory of post-industrial society is being formed. The development of computing and information technology is considered to be the basis for the transformation of an industrial society and its transformation into a post-industrial one.
Another common approach in modern sociology is the civilizational approach.
At the heart of the civilized approach lies the idea of ​​the originality of the path traveled by peoples. Within the framework of this theory, different researchers single out different civilizations, but all of them are characterized by the allocation of Egyptian, Chinese, Babylonian, European, Russian, Muslim, Greek and other civilizations.
The uniqueness of each civilization is determined not only by the material base and method of production, but also by the culture corresponding to them.

15. Theory of social change

Social change is understood as the transition of a social object from one state to another, a significant modification in the social organization of society, its institutions and social structure, a change in established social patterns of behavior.

In sociology, since its inception, two types of social change have been singled out and studied, as a rule:

1) evolutionary- done without violence

2) revolutionary- in which social actors reorganize the social order

The evolutionary approach originates and methodological support in the studies of Charles Darwin. The main problem of evolutionism in sociology was the identification of the determining factor of social change. O. Comte he saw the progress of knowledge as such a decisive link.

E. Durkheim considered the process of social change as a transition from mechanical solidarity to organic solidarity arising on the basis of the division of labor.

K. Marx considered the determining factor to be the productive forces of society, the growth of which leads to a change in the mode of production, which, being the basis for the development of the whole society.

M. Weber I saw the driving force of social change in the fact that a person, relying on various religious, political, moral values, creates certain social structures that facilitate social development or hinder it.

16. Culture as a social phenomenon

17. Sociological analysis of culture

Culture - this scientific term appeared in Ancient Rome, where he meant "cultivation of the land", "education", "education".

Culture is phenomena, properties, elements of human life that qualitatively distinguish a person from nature. This qualitative difference is connected with the conscious transforming activity of man.

Culture can be divided into the following kinds:

1) according to the bearer of culture - into public, national, class, group, personal;

2) by functional role - into general and special;

3) by genesis - into folk and elite;

4) by type - into material and spiritual;

5) by nature - into religious and secular.

culture is a set of values, norms, ideas and patterns of behavior that mediate social interaction, determine the thinking and behavior of members of a particular group or community .

18. Basic forms of culture

By the nature of the creations, one can single out the culture represented in single samples (folk and elite) And popular culture.

folk culture is a single work of most often anonymous authors who do not have professional training. The authors of folk creations are unknown. It includes myths, legends, tales, epics, fairy tales, songs and dances. Modern manifestations of folk culture include anecdotes, urban legends.

Elite culture- a set of individual creations that are created by well-known representatives of society or by its order by professional creators. The circle of its consumers is a highly educated part of society: critics, literary critics, frequenters of museums and exhibitions, theater-goers, artists, writers, musicians. When the level of education of the population grows, the circle of consumers of high culture expands.

Elite culture intended for a narrow circle of highly educated public.

Mass (public) culture represents products of spiritual production in the field of art, created in large editions, counting on the general public. The main thing for her is the entertainment of the broadest masses of the population. It is understandable and accessible to all ages, all segments of the population, regardless of the level of education. Its main feature is the simplicity of ideas and images.

Popular culture is usually , less artistic value than elite or folk culture. But it has the widest audience.

Subculture- this is the culture of any social group: confessional, professional, corporate, etc. It, as a rule, does not deny the universal culture, but has specific features. Signs of a subculture are special rules of behavior, language, symbols.

Dominant culture- values, traditions, views, etc., shared only by a part of society. But this part has the ability to impose them on the whole society due to the fact that it constitutes the ethnic majority, or due to the fact that it has a mechanism of coercion.

19. Cultural universals

Cultural universals are such norms, values, rules, traditions and properties that are inherent in all cultures, regardless of geographical location, historical time and social structure of society.

In 1959, the American sociologist and ethnographer George Murdoch identified more than 70 universals - elements common to all cultures: age gradation, sports, body jewelry, calendar, cleanliness, community organization, cooking, labor cooperation, cosmology, courtship, dancing, decorative arts , divination, interpretation of dreams, division of labor, education, etc.

Cultural universals arise because all people in whatever part of the world they live are physically the same, they have the same biological needs and face common problems that the environment poses to mankind. People are born and die, so all nations have customs associated with birth and death. As they live together, they have a division of labor, dancing, and so on.

20. Sociological approach to the study of personality

Sociological approach highlights the socio-typical personality. The main problems of the sociological theory of personality are associated with the process of personality formation and development in close connection with the functioning and development of social communities, the study of the natural connection between the individual and society, the regulation and self-regulation of the social behavior of the individual.

“Personality” is a capacious, multidimensional, elusive concept. In order to determine it, it is necessary first of all to distinguish between the categories “man”, “individual”, “personality”.

concept "human" is used when it is possible to single out the belonging of a person to the human race, the possession of common features for all people.

When should one emphasize we are talking not about all of humanity, not about all people, but about a specific person, then the concept of “individual” is used.

Personality- this is also a single person, but here we are talking about a system of stable qualities, properties that are realized in social life. Since sociology is interested in man primarily as a product of society, and not as a product of nature, the category of personality is more important for it.

21. Social types personalities

Sociology distinguishes the following personality types:

Ideal - embodies the features of the social ideal of a particular society;

Normative - represents a set of personality traits necessary for the development of a given society;

Really existing or Modal - the predominant type of personality at a certain stage of the development of society, which may differ significantly from the normative, and even more so ideal types.

The most important components of the personality structure are memory, culture and activity.

Memory- The system of knowledge acquired by a person in the course of his life.

culture of personality- The totality of social norms and values ​​by which it is guided in the process of practical activity.

Activity- purposeful influence of the subject on the object.

Sociologists distinguish the following types of personality:

1. Traditionalists - focused on the values ​​of duty, order, discipline, such qualities as creativity, independence, the desire for self-realization are undeveloped.

2. Idealists - a critical attitude towards traditional norms, independence, disregard for authorities, a focus on self-development.

3. Frustrated personality type - characterized by low self-esteem, oppression, depression, a feeling of being thrown out of the stream of life.

4. Realists - combine the desire for self-realization with a developed sense of duty and responsibility, skepticism with self-discipline.

5. Hedonists - focused on satisfying all consumer desires, this is the pursuit of the "pleasures of life."

social status is the position of the individual in the social community. It captures the differences between people according to their social prestige in society, determines the place of the individual in the system of social relations.

social prestige- assessment by society of the social significance of things (their properties) and people (their behavior) in terms of norms and values ​​accepted in a given society.

The social status of an individual depends on objective factors and subjective indicators. Status can be:

1) hereditary(or prescribed), when an individual acquires a position in society regardless of his personal efforts (the status of a millionaire, a black man, a woman);

2) acquired, achieved by a person, thanks to his choice, efforts, merits.

Statuses are classified according to other criteria.

1) natural status - associated with biological characteristics, for example, the status of a man or woman can be different;

2) professional legal status - has social criteria for its measurement, officially agreed or informal.

Much in assessing the status of a person depends on the specific social roles performed by each individual.

social role- a model of behavior due to the position of the individual in the system of interpersonal relations.

23. Socialization of the individual: essence, stages, institutions

Personality socialization- this is the process of entry of each individual into the social structure, as a result of which changes occur with the very structure of society and in the structure of each individual.

As a result of this process, all the norms of each group are assimilated, the uniqueness of each group is manifested, the individual learns patterns of behavior, values ​​and social norms.

The process of socialization of the individual goes through three main phases in its development.

· The first phase consists in the development of social values ​​and norms, as a result of which the individual learns to conform to the whole society.

· The second phase consists in the desire of the individual for his own personalization, self-actualization and a certain impact on other members of society.

· The third phase consists in the integration of each person into a certain social group, where he reveals his own properties and capabilities.

Only the consistent flow of the entire process can lead to the successful completion of the entire process.
The process of socialization itself includes the main stages of personality socialization:

Primary socialization - the process proceeds from birth to the formation of the personality itself;

Secondary socialization - at this stage, the personality is restructured during the period of maturity and stay in society.

Consider this process depending on age in more detail at each stage.

Childhood - socialization begins at birth and develops from the earliest stage of development.

· Adolescence is an equally important social stage, since during this stage the greatest number of physiological changes occur, puberty and personality development begin.

Youth (early maturity) - the age of 16 years is considered the most dangerous and stressful, since now each individual independently and consciously decides for himself which society to join and choose for himself the most suitable social society in which he will be for quite a long time, stay .

· In the older years (approximately between the ages of 18 and 30) the basic instincts and the formation of socialization are redirected to work and one's own love. The first ideas about oneself come to every boy or girl through work experience, sexual relations and friendship.

24. Institutions and agents of personality socialization

Personality socialization- this is the process of entry of each individual into the social structure, as a result of which changes occur with the very structure of society and in the structure of each individual

Primary socialization covers the period of childhood. In it, the family plays a decisive role, ensuring the entry of the individual into social communities.

Secondary socialization covers all life path person and is superimposed on the results of primary socialization.

Resocialization- the process of assimilation of new ways of action, attitudes, skills, rules instead of the previous ones.

Desocialization- a process that takes place from the moment of termination of employment and the acquisition of retirement status.

Socialization agents– social groups and social environment that have significant influence for a person to enter society. They are all subjects and groups with which the individual interacts closely in a certain period of his life. In infancy, the main agents of socialization are parents. In the period from 3 to 8 years, friends, educators and other people become agents of socialization in addition to parents. In the period from 13 to 19 years old, attitudes towards the opposite sex begin to form and, as a result, the role of socialization agents changes, the role of parents decreases and the influence of friends increases. In the period from 14 to 18 years old, new agents of socialization appear - the educational and labor collective.

Institutes of socialization- social groups that contribute to the assimilation of social norms and rules of behavior by the individual. These include family, school, work collective, culture. Family- the primary group, characterized by close, direct ties and cooperation. It is the experience of empathy and mutual identification. School- an institution of socialization that transfers knowledge, skills and abilities beyond the initial contact of parents and children. The agents of socialization are teachers, through whose efforts the training of students is carried out. Labor collective- an institution of socialization that specializes and makes the professional socialization of the individual. culture- an institution of socialization that promotes creative development personality and is a product of its activity in the form of norms, values, rules and patterns of behavior.

25. Social structure of society
The social structure of society is a set of its elements, as well as connections and relationships that groups and communities of people enter into regarding the conditions of their life.

The social structure is based on the social division of labor, property relations, as well as other factors of social inequality.

The advantages of social inequality lie in the opportunities for professional specialization and the prerequisites for the growth of labor productivity.

The disadvantages of social inequality are related to the social conflicts it generates.
Class-forming features: the level of income, the level of education and qualifications, the prestige of the profession, access to power.
Top class (usually 1-2% of the population) - these are the owners of big capital, the industrial and financial elite, the highest political elite, the highest bureaucracy, the generals, the most successful representatives of the creative elite. They usually own a significant part of the property and have a serious influence on politics, the economy, culture, education and other areas of public life.
lower class - low-skilled and unskilled workers with a low level of education and income, many of whom are characterized by significant discrepancies between relatively high expectations and personal results achieved in society.
Middle class - a set of groups of self-employed and wage labor, occupying a "middle", intermediate position between the highest and lowest strata in most status hierarchies (property, income, power) and having a common identity.

26. The concept and typology of social communities and groups

A social group is any set of people considered from the point of view of their commonality.
Family, school class, friends and professional team are the most significant social groups for the individual.
The main features of a social group:
1) availability psychological characteristics such as public opinion, psychological climate, etc.;
2) the existence of parameters of the group as a whole: composition and structure, group processes, group norms and sanctions.
3) the ability of individuals to coordinate actions;
4) the action of group pressure that encourages a person to behave in a certain way and in accordance with the expectations of others.
By public status groups are divided into formal and informal,

on immediacy of relationships- for real and nominal,

By number of members distinguish large, small groups and microgroups.

The composition of microgroups includes two or three people. Large groups are studied from the point of view of mass phenomena of the psyche (crowd, audience, public).
By level of development there are groups that are unorganized or poorly organized, with a low cohesion index, and groups of a high level of development (collectives).
Relative toyu to society: positive attitude - prosocial, negative - asocial.

Any collective is a well-organized pro-social group, since it is focused on the benefit of society. A well-organized asocial group is called a corporation. The corporation is usually characterized by isolation, rigid centralization and authoritarian management.

27. Social stratification: concept, criteria, types

To describe the system of inequality between groups (communities) of people in sociology, the concept is widely used "social stratification"-division into social strata("layers").

Stratification implies that certain social differences between people acquire the character of a hierarchical ranking. In its most general form, inequality means that people live in conditions in which they have unequal access to limited resources of material and spiritual consumption.

In sociology, four main types of social stratification are known - slavery, castes, estates And classes.

The first three characterize closed societies and the last type open.

Closed is a society where social movements from the lower strata to the higher or completely prohibited either significantly limited.

open called a society where movement from one stratum to another is officially not limited in any way.

Slavery - an economic, social and legal form of enslavement of people, bordering on complete lack of rights and an extreme degree of inequality.

caste system not as ancient as the slave, and less common. If almost all countries went through slavery, then castes are found only in India and partly in Africa.

Castoy called a social group, membership in which a person owes solely to his birth.

Estates precede classes and characterize the feudal societies that existed in Europe from the 4th to the 14th centuries.

estate - a social group that has fixed customs or legal law and inherited rights and obligations

Class- any social stratum in modern society that differs from others in income, education, power and prestige.

28. Historical types of social stratification

There are 4 main historical types of social stratification.

1. Slavery is an extreme form of inequality, when some individuals are the property of others.

2. Caste - a group whose members are related by origin or legal status, belonging to which is hereditary, the transition from one caste to another is practically impossible.

3. Estate - a group that has fixed custom or law and inherited rights and obligations. Estates were based on landed property. Characteristic estates - the presence of social symbols and signs: titles, uniforms, orders, titles.

The estate system reached its perfection in the medieval Western Europe. As a rule, two privileged classes are distinguished - the clergy and the nobility - and the third, which included all other strata of society.

4. Classes have a number of features that distinguish them from the other three stratification systems:

1) Classes are not based on law and religious traditions.

2) An individual can become a member of a class through his efforts, and not just "receive" it at birth.

3) Classes arise depending on the difference in the economic situation of groups of individuals.

29. Social stratification in modern society

The Stalin-Brezhnev model of stratification was reduced only to forms of ownership and, on this basis, to two classes (workers and collective farm peasantry) and a stratum (intelligentsia).

A. Inkels - analyzed the 1940-1950s. and gave a conical model of the hierarchical division of society in the USSR. Using the material level, privileges and power as bases, he outlined nine social strata: the ruling elite, the upper intelligentsia, the labor aristocracy, the mainstream intelligentsia, the middle workers, the wealthy peasants, the white-collar workers, the middle peasants, the underprivileged workers, and the forced labor group ( prisoners).

Western sociologists in the twentieth century. use different approaches to social stratification:

1) subjective - self-evaluative, when the respondents themselves determine their social affiliation;

2) subjective reputational, when the respondents determine the social affiliation of each other;

3) objective (the most common), as a rule, with a status criterion.

Most Western sociologists, structuring the societies of developed countries, divide them into the upper, middle and working classes, in some countries also the peasantry.

30. Social problems of youth

State youth policy is a special direction in
activities of the state, the purpose of which is the creation of legal,
economic and organizational conditions and guarantees for self-realization
personality of a young person and the development of youth associations, movements and
initiatives.
Analysis of the state youth policy in the Republic of Belarus
makes it possible to identify some characteristic trends:
1. Reforming the system of education and retraining of youth,
aimed at the formation of a new style of thinking, the foundations of economic
behavior for the successful fulfillment of new social roles in the conditions
market economy.
2. Creation of the necessary material and economic conditions for
maintaining continuity in the work of the main state and
non-state structures that ensure the life of society, with
taking into account further development scientific and technological progress, the introduction of a new
technology, changes in working conditions and content.
3. Use of appropriate economic and moral incentives
in order to create motivational bases for switching migratory
flows of youth to socially significant industries and regions of the republic.
4. Creation of necessary legal and financial opportunities for
independent solution of their problems by young people, development of initiative and
entrepreneurial spirit: starting a business, building a house, etc.
5. Expanding opportunities for sharing experience and knowledge with young people
people from near and far abroad: simplification of entry and exit
citizens, foreign internships, study in other countries, etc.
6. Creation of a system of incentives, material and moral
encouragement of talented and creative youth, development of national
arts and culture.
Thus, studying the problems of the formation of youth as a group
the population that plays the most active role in the further development
society, generating new scientific ideas that make it possible to understand and explain
ambiguous processes taking place today in the youth environment,
sociological science contributes to the development of the state
youth policy.

31. Social mobility: concepts and types

Social mobility is a change by an individual or group of their social position in social space.

The concept was introduced into scientific circulation by P. Sorokin in 1927. He singled out two main types of mobility: horizontal and vertical.

Vertical mobility implies a set of social movements, which is accompanied by an increase or decrease in the social status of an individual. Depending on the direction of movement, there are upward vertical mobility(social uplift) and downward mobility(social decline).

Horizontal mobility- this is the transition of an individual from one social position to another, located at the same level. An example is the movement from one citizenship to another, from one profession to another, which has a similar status in society.

Mobility is often referred to as horizontal mobility. geographical, which implies moving from one place to another while maintaining the existing status (moving to another place of residence, tourism, etc.). If social status changes when moving, then geographic mobility turns into migration.

There are the following types of migration on:

§ character - labor and political reasons:

§ duration - temporary (seasonal) and permanent;

§ territories - internal and international:

§ status - legal and illegal.

By types of mobility sociologists distinguish between intergenerational and intragenerational.

Intergenerational mobility suggests the nature of changes in social status between generations and allows you to determine how much children rise or, conversely, fall on the social ladder compared to their parents.

Intragenerational mobility connected with social career, meaning a change in status within one generation.

32. Social institutions: concept and typology

Social institutions- sustainable forms of organization and regulation of public life. They can be defined as a set of roles and statuses designed to meet certain social needs. Consequently, social institutions are classified according to public spheres: 1) economic, which serve the production and distribution of values ​​and services. 2) political regulate the use of these values ​​and services and are associated with power. Political institutions express the political interests and relations existing in a given society; 3) Family and marriage institutions are associated with the regulation of childbearing, relations between spouses and children, the socialization of young people; 4) institutions of education and culture are associated with science, education, etc. Their task is to strengthen, create and develop the culture of society, to pass it on to the next generations. 5) religious institutions, i.e. those that organize a person's attitude to supersensitive forces, acting outside the empirical control of a person, and the attitude to sacred objects and forces.

33. Education in the system of social institutions

Education is considered as a system that includes various levels:

Preschool, primary, secondary, higher, postgraduate study.

The education system also includes various types:

Mass and elite;

General and technical.

In its modern form, education arose in Ancient Greece. XIX century, when there is a mass school. In the 20th century, the role of education is constantly increasing, the formal level of education of the population is growing.

Functions of Education:

Socio-economic function. Preparation for work work force different skill levels.

Cultural. It ensures the transmission of cultural heritage from one generation to another.

socializing function. Familiarization of the individual with social norms and values ​​of society

Integration function. By introducing common values, teaching certain norms, education stimulates common actions, unites people.

selection function. There is a selection of children in elite schools, their further promotion.

Humanistic function. Comprehensive development of the personality of the student.

Among the various goals of education, three are the most stable: intensive, extensive, productive.

Extensive goal education involves the transfer of accumulated knowledge, cultural achievements, the use of existing potential.

Intense Purpose education consists in the broad and complete development of the qualities of students to form their readiness not only to acquire certain knowledge, but also to constantly deepen knowledge, develop creative potential.

productive goal education involves preparing students for the types of activities that he will be engaged in and the structure of employment that has developed.

34. Social institutions of the family and marriage

A family is an association of people based on consanguinity, marriage or adoption, connected by a common life and mutual responsibility for raising children. It includes such phenomena as the institution of marriage, the institution of kinship, the institution of motherhood and fatherhood,

The institution of marriage implies a set of norms and sanctions that regulate the relationship of spouses.

Sociologists distinguish between marriage and family in the following way. Marriage is an institution that regulates relations between the sexes, and the family is an institution that regulates relations between spouses, between parents and children.

The institution of the family differs in each society in terms of its tasks, structure, and social role. The family arose because human babies, unlike all other animal species, have the longest childhood. Dependence of a child on parents lasts up to 15-18 years. During this period, he needs material and social support from adults.

In the typology of families, there are

consanguine families (based on kinship)

conjugal families (based on marriage)

family of origin (family of origin)

procreation family (created by adult children)

extended (multi-generational)

nuclear (two-generation) family

There are the following types of marriage.

Monogamy is the marriage of one man and one woman.

Polygamy means many wives or many husbands.

Family Functions

1. Regulation of sexual relations. Marriage and the family regulate sexual relations because laws or customs prescribe who should have sex with whom and under what conditions.

2. Reproduction of the population. Society cannot exist if there is no well-established system of replacing one generation with another. The family is a guaranteed and institutionalized means of replenishing the population.

3. Socialization. The new generation that replaces the old one is able to learn social roles only in the process of socialization. Parents pass on their life experience to their children, instill good manners, teach crafts and theoretical knowledge, lay the foundations for speaking and writing, and control their actions.

4. Care and protection. The family provides its members with guardianship, protection, social security.

5. Social self-determination. Legitimizing the birth of a person means its legal and social definition. Thanks to the family, a person receives a surname, name and patronymic, the right to dispose of inheritance and housing. He belongs to the same class, race, ethnicity, and religious group as the family of origin.

35. Types of sociological research

The type of sociological research is predetermined by the nature of the goals and objectives set, as well as by the depth of analysis of sociological processes.

There are three main types of sociological research:

1.reconnaissance- allows for such a study to solve limited problems. In this study, twenty to one hundred people are interviewed. The purpose of this study is to obtain operational sociological information.

2.Descriptive research- with its help, they receive information that already gives a relatively holistic view of the studied social phenomenon. The object of analysis is relatively large populations with different characteristics. This allows you to get reliable, complete information and draw deeper conclusions and sound recommendations.

3.Analytical study- in this type of sociological research, the reason underlying the phenomenon or process under study is clarified.

According to the nature of the study, sociological studies are divided into:

1. Fundamental;

2. Applied (consideration of individual problems);

3.Complex.

By types of research objects:

1.Research of social communities;

2. The study of the collective behavior of public opinion of people in any area of ​​public life.

By types of research customers:

1. State budget orders (Government bodies);

2. Contractual agreements (legal entities, individuals).

According to the timing of sociological research, they are divided into:

1.Long-term (from 3 to 5 years);

2. Medium-term (from 6 months to 2 years);

3. Short-term (from 2 to 6 months);

4. Express (up to 1 month).

36. Stages of sociological research

1. Preparatory stage. The main purpose of this stage is to indicate what the research is being conducted for. A program is being drawn up. The means, terms of the study and ways of processing information are determined.

2. The second stage is the collection of primary sociological information. More specifically, this is still ungeneralized information, extracts from documents, individual answers of respondents.

3. The third stage is preparation collected information to computer processing. The main task of this stage is the compilation of the processing program and the processing itself on a computer.

4. And the last final stage is the analysis of the processed information, the preparation of a scientific report, the formulation of conclusions and recommendations.

37. Sociological Research Program

Sociological research begins with the development of its program. The results of the study largely depend on the scientific validity of this document. The program is a theoretical and methodological basis for the research procedures carried out by a sociologist (collection, processing and analysis of information) and includes:

- definition of the problem, object and subject of research;

- preliminary system analysis of the object of study;

- description of the purpose and objectives of the study;

– interpretation and operationalization of basic concepts;

– formulation of working hypotheses;

– definition of a strategic research plan;

- drawing up a sampling plan;

– description of data collection methods;

– description of the data analysis scheme.

Sometimes there are theoretical and methodological sections in the program.

The first includes the components of the program, which begin with the formulation of the problem and end with the compilation of a sample plan, the second - a description of the methods of collecting, processing and analyzing data.

The program must answer two basic questions:

- firstly, how to move from the initial theoretical provisions of sociology to research, how to "translate" them into research tools, methods of collecting, processing and analyzing material;

- secondly, how to rise again from the facts obtained, from the accumulated empirical material to theoretical generalizations, so that the study not only gives practical recommendations, but also serves as the basis for the further development of the theory itself.

38. Methods for collecting sociological information

Methods of collecting sociological data, with the help of which the process of obtaining scientific information is organized:

§ document analysis;

§ sociological observation;

§ survey(questionnaire, interviewing, expert survey);

§ social experiment;

Document analysis method is a systematic study of documents aimed at obtaining information relevant for the purposes of the study.

Main purpose method - extract contained in the document information about the object under study fix it in the form of signs, to determine its reliability, reliability, significance for the purposes of the study.

Method of sociological observation- method collection of primary sociological information, carried out by direct perception and direct registration of events that are significant from the point of view of the objectives of the study. Key Feature method is what happens direct recording of events by an eyewitness rather than interviewing witnesses to the event.

Method survey represents method of collecting social information about the object under study in the course of direct (in the case of an interview) or indirect (in a survey) socio-psychological communication between the sociologist and the respondent by registering responses respondent to the questions asked by the sociologist.

The main purpose of the method– getting information about state of public, group, individual opinion.

Questionnaire

When questionnaire questionnaire. Its function is that, having received an instruction from a sociologist-researcher, he behaves in accordance with it, creating a positive motivation of the respondent in relation to the survey.

Interview

The role of the interviewer is not just distributing questionnaires and ensuring that respondents fill them out, but at least voicing the questions of the questionnaire. The functions of the interviewer depend on the type of interview. The higher role of the interviewer in the study places higher demands on him.

Expert survey. Its distinguishing feature is that the respondents are experts - specialists in a particular field of activity. The procedure for obtaining information from experts is called expertise.

39. Survey in sociological research and its types

The sociological survey is different:

The first distinguishing feature is the number of respondents. A sociologist interviews hundreds and thousands of people and only then, summarizing the information received, draws conclusions. Why is he doing this? When interviewing one person, they get a personal opinion.

The second distinguishing feature is reliability and objectivity. It is closely related to the first: by interviewing hundreds and thousands of people, the sociologist gets the opportunity to process the data mathematically.

The third distinguishing feature is the purpose of the survey. A doctor, journalist or investigator does not strive for the truth at all, seeking the truth from the interviewee: the investigator to a greater extent, the journalist to a lesser extent.

The specifics of the social survey:

1) information is given directly by the carrier of the problem under study or a participant in the events under study;

2) the survey is aimed at identifying those aspects of the problem that are not always reflected in documentary sources

3) the survey is a kind of social, psychologist. communication of the interviewer with the respondent;

4) the survey can be used in the study of various spheres of society;

5) the survey allows you to quickly interview large groups of people.

Poll types:

1) by contact forms:

a) personal or indirect; b) individual. or group;

c) oral or written; d) continuous or selective;

2) in general terms:

a) questioning; b) an interview.

40. Sociological observation

It is believed that the ancestral home and area where it is still used most often is anthropology. Anthropologists observe the way of life, social relations and interaction, customs, mores, traditions of forgotten and small peoples, tribes and communities.

There are two main types: included and non-included observation.

If a sociologist studies the conduct of strikers, a street crowd, a group of teenagers or a team of workers from outside (registers all types of actions, reactions, forms of communication, etc. on a special form), then he conducts non-participant observation. If he joined the ranks of the strikers, joined the crowd, participates in a teenage group, or if he got a job at an enterprise, then he conducts an included observation.

41. The study of documents in a sociological study

Document analysis is a method of collecting primary data in which documents are used as the main source of information.

According to the form of fixation, information is divided into:

Written documents (information is presented in the form of a text);

Statistical data (digital presentation);

Iconographic documentation (film, photo documentation);

phonetic documents.

The most common, firmly established in the practice of sociological research is traditional (classical) and formalized (quantitative).

Traditional, classical analysis is the whole variety of mental operations aimed at integrating the information contained in a document from a certain point of view adopted by the researcher in each specific case. The weakness of traditional document analysis is subjectivism.

Content analysis is a research method used in various disciplines, fields of humanitarian knowledge.

One of the features of content analysis is that it finds the greatest application in the study of the media. It is also used in the analysis of documents: minutes of meetings, conferences, intergovernmental agreements, etc. This method is often used by special services.

42. Processing and analysis of sociological information

In sociology, methods of analysis and processing of sociological information are understood as methods for transforming empirical data obtained in the course of sociological research. The transformation is carried out in order to make the data visible, compact and suitable for meaningful analysis.

Information processing methods can be divided into primary and secondary. For the primary processing methods, the initial information is the data obtained in the course of an empirical study, i.e., the so-called "primary information": respondents' answers, expert assessments, observational data, etc.

Secondary processing methods are used, as a rule, for primary processing data, i.e. these are methods for obtaining indicators calculated from frequencies, grouped data and clusters (averages, scatter measures, relationships, significance indicators, etc.). The methods of secondary processing can also include methods of graphical presentation of data, the initial information for which are percentages, tables, indices.

From the point of view of the use of technical means, two types of processing of sociological information are distinguished: manual and machine (using computer technology). Manual processing is mainly used as a primary one with small amounts of information (from several tens to hundreds of questionnaires), as well as with relatively simple algorithms for its analysis. The secondary processing of information is carried out using a microcalculator or other computer technology.

However, the main means of data analysis and processing at the present time are computers, on which the primary and most types of secondary processing and analysis of sociological information are carried out. At the same time, the analysis and processing of sociological information on a computer is carried out, as a rule, by means of specially developed computer programs that implement methods for analyzing and processing sociological data. These programs are usually issued in the form of special sets of programs or so-called packages of applied programs for the analysis of sociological information.

43. Interview method in sociological research

Interview as a method of sociological research- one of the main qualitative methods of obtaining information, is a purposeful conversation between the interviewer and the respondent, which is carried out according to a certain plan and requires mandatory fixation.

The use of the interview method in sociological research involves a lot of preliminary preparatory work. Sequential questions are formulated to be asked to the respondent.

The interviewer must have the following professional qualities: sociability, the ability to conduct an attentive and unbiased conversation, sensitivity to details that require additional questions; master the techniques of recording (audio, video), transcription and processing of interview results.

Special conditions are created for the interview. These include obtaining the respondent's consent to cooperate, informing the respondent that the conversation is being recorded, etc.

The interview method, as well as the questionnaire, is one of the methods for collecting information. Unlike the questionnaire survey , interview involves communication between the interviewer and the respondent "face to face", which provides a higher response rate. When conducting an interview, the likelihood that the respondent will answer all questions of the questionnaire is higher than in the case when the respondent fills out the questionnaire himself and may skip some of the questions. According to the form of conducting, it can be direct, as they say, “face to face”, and indirect, for example, by telephone.

Thus, a survey is one of the main methods for obtaining data on the state of public and group consciousness, on people's opinions and their assessments of various social phenomena and processes. The survey method is a fairly flexible tool for collecting information and can be implemented in various forms - oral and written, full-time and part-time, etc. Surveys are indispensable in situations where the object of study is not available for direct observation; in such cases, the survey becomes the main method of collecting information. As a rule, in specific studies, surveys are supplemented by methods of content analysis, observation and experiment.

44. Questioning as a method of collecting sociological information

When questionnaire the process of communication between the researcher and the respondent is mediated by a questionnaire. Conducts a survey questionnaire. Its function is that, having received an instruction from a sociologist-researcher, he behaves in accordance with it, creating a positive motivation of the respondent in relation to the survey. The questionnaire also explains the rules for completing the questionnaire and returning it.

There are various types questioning.

By number of respondents allocate group and individual questioning.

Depending on the situation and audience Distinguish between questioning at the place of work, in the target audience (for example, in the library) or on the street.

It is important delivery method questionnaires. Here are the following varieties:

§ distributing (courier) questioning. Allows one questionnaire to interview many people at the same time by distributing questionnaires in the audience;

§ postal survey, in which the questionnaire is delivered to the respondent by mail;

§ Press poll. In this case, the questionnaire is published in the media. This method has limited possibilities, since the sociologist does not form a sample, is not able to predict who will answer the questionnaire. Used in journalism.

Each of these methods has both advantages and disadvantages. For example, in the case of mail surveys, the problem of returning questionnaires arises, and in the case of a press survey, it is impossible to extend the results of the study to the entire study population (newspaper subscribers), since here only the respondent decides whether to take part in the survey or not.

The main survey tool is questionnaire. The quality of the questionnaire largely determines the reliability and reliability of the results of the study. A sociological questionnaire is a system of questions united by a single research plan aimed at identifying the characteristics of the object and subject of analysis. There are certain rules and principles for constructing a questionnaire.

Modern sociology is a branched system of knowledge at different levels and includes:

General sociological theories;

Special (private) sociological theories (or theories of the middle level);

Branch sociological theories (such as economic, political, legal, etc. sociology) are aimed at sociological understanding of the corresponding manifestations of the existence of society. They apply the conceptual, categorical and methodological apparatus of sociological science, directing it into an interdisciplinary channel. Thus, not only interaction with related socio-humanitarian disciplines is carried out, but also a multidimensional vision of society as an integral phenomenon is created. Acting as a specialized use of the "optics" of sociological science, sectoral sociologists mediate the relationship of general and social theories with empirical sociology;

empirical sociology.

First level includes theories of the highest level of generalization, explaining the phenomena and processes that are important for all areas of social relations. Second level special (private) sociological theories (or theories of the middle level) generalize and structure empirical data within certain areas of society (family, education, politics, economics, the army, etc.).

Special sociological theories can be divided into various groups:

1) theories of social institutions (sociology of religion, education, family);
2) theories of social communities (ethnosociology, sociology of the electorate, sociology of youth);
3) the theory of specialized areas of activity (labor, sports, leisure, management);
4) theories of social processes (the theory of social exchange, interactions, sociology of social changes);
5) theories of social phenomena (sociology of public opinion, gender sociology).
6) J. Ritzer distinguishes four levels in sociological analysis: macro-objective, macro-subjective, micro-objective and micro-subjective.

The sectoral structure of sociology is determined by the thematic areas and areas of research that emerged in the process of differentiation of sociological knowledge. Branches of sociology are formed in the presence of: a) close topics, b) common theoretical guidelines, c) unity of methodology and similarity of methodological tools. To date, sociology is represented by dozens of branches, such as economic, political sociology, sociology of labor, cities, culture, religion, education, etc. At the same time, individual branches of sociology are also divided into subdisciplines. So, within the framework of the sociology of culture, the sociology of cinema, theater, reading, and mass culture stands out. Economic sociology includes the sociology of labor, the sociology of employment, the sociology of banks, management, etc.

Along with the four levels distinguish macro- and microsociology. Researchers working in the field macrosociology, focus on the relationship between the main elements of the social system. They work with the concepts of culture, social institutions, social systems, structures, society. Microsociological concepts focus on individuals, behavioral acts. Microsociologists use the concepts of social behavior, interactions, motives, etc.

Basic components of knowledge. In sociology, as in any other science, there are the following main components: knowledge and the means of obtaining it. (Let's make a reservation: in this context, we are not considering the subjects of scientific activity - scientists and research teams, but only the means and results of their activities.) The first component - sociological knowledge - includes knowledge about knowledge (methodological knowledge) and knowledge about the subject. The second component is both individual methods and sociological research proper.

Methodological knowledge includes philosophical and methodological principles; the doctrine of the subject of sociology; knowledge of methods, their development and application; the doctrine of sociological knowledge, its forms, types and levels; knowledge about the process of sociological research, its structure and functions.

Knowledge about the subject- these are specially constructed classifications, or typologies, conceptual or mathematical models, hypotheses and theories, statistical data.

In sociology, they use private scientific methods(e.g. observation, survey) and general scientific(for example, statistics).

Methods in sociology are the means of obtaining and systematizing scientific knowledge about social reality. They include the principles of organizing cognitive (research) activities; regulations or rules; a set of techniques and methods of action; order (scheme or plan) of actions.

Techniques and methods of research are built in a certain sequence based on regulatory principles.

The sequence of techniques and methods of action is called a procedure. The procedure is an integral part of any method.

Methodology is the implementation of the method as a whole, and hence its procedure. It means linking one or a combination of several methods and relevant procedures to the study, its conceptual apparatus; selection or development of methodological tools (set of methods), methodological strategy (sequence of application of methods and corresponding procedures). A methodological toolkit, a methodological strategy, or simply a methodology can be original (unique), applicable only in one study, or standard (typical), applicable in many studies.

In different studies, the same method is specifically refracted depending on its place and role in the study, on its connection with other methods.

The technique includes technique. Technique- this is the implementation of the method at the level of the simplest operations, brought to perfection. It can be a set and sequence of methods of working with the object of research (data collection technique), with research data (data processing technique), with research tools (questionnaire compilation technique).

Levels and functions of knowledge. Depending on the level of knowledge, sociological research is divided into theoretical And empirical.

The problem of correlation between theoretical and empirical in scientific knowledge includes two aspects: functional and genetic. The first concerns the relationship between the developed theoretical apparatus of science and its empirical basis. Consideration of the issue in this aspect involves finding links between the apparatus of theory and observational and experimental data, identifying methods for empirical verification of theoretical positions, etc. This is possible only if the theoretical level of scientific knowledge has already been formed and we are talking about substantiating its relationship with empirical level. At the same time, the "feedback" of theory with empirical evidence becomes the most important driving factor for further improvement and development of the very theoretical apparatus of science. The theoretical level of science appears here as an element of its established, albeit changing, developing structure. The second - genetic - aspect of the problem of correlation between theoretical and empirical knowledge in science concerns the formation of a theoretical apparatus, including scientific theory, the transition from the empirical stage of science to its theoretical stage.

Sociological knowledge, regardless of its level, is characterized by two functions: explanation function social reality and its transformation function. The division of sociology into "theoretical" and "empirical" is associated with the levels of knowledge (theoretical and empirical) in sociology, while the division of sociology into "fundamental" and "applied" is associated with the orientation (function) of sociology to the actual scientific or practical tasks.

Thus, empirical research can be carried out within the framework of both fundamental and applied sociology. If its goal is the construction of a theory, then it belongs to fundamental (by orientation) sociology. If its goal is to develop practical recommendations, then it belongs to applied sociology. The study, being empirical in terms of the level of knowledge obtained, can be applied in terms of the nature of the problem being solved - the transformation of reality. The same applies to theoretical research (according to the level of knowledge). Thus, applied research does not form a special level. These are also theoretical and empirical studies (according to the level of knowledge), but with an applied orientation.

Empirical sociological research in its organizational structure and the nature of the research tasks to be solved differ from traditional theoretical research. research activities Including elements of theoretical knowledge necessary for a preliminary analysis of the social object under study and generalization of the results obtained, empirical sociological research requires the ability of a scientist to solve many organizational problems, implies professional possession of specific research techniques and skills in obtaining primary sociological information (conducting surveys, interviews), mathematical methods its processing and analysis.

Therefore, the competent conduct of sociological research not only presupposes that the sociologist acquires a specific amount of knowledge and skills, but also requires a great deal of professional experience. Currently, within the very sociological research activity, there is a certain differentiation of performing functions (methodologists, methodologists, mathematicians, etc.), which is due to the complexity and uniqueness of the various stages of sociological research.

According to the nature of the knowledge obtained, research is divided into methodological(knowledge about knowledge) and non-methodological(knowledge about the subject). The result of methodological research is methodological knowledge, that is, knowledge not about the subject of sociology, but about the means of studying this subject (methods, procedures). Let us note, by the way, that in fact methodological studies are metatheoretical, therefore, they can be attributed to the sphere of metasociology.

Methodological research refers to any level of knowledge and is carried out within the framework of both fundamental and applied sociology.

In sociology, not only scientific or applied research takes place, but also mixed research, in which both scientific and practical problems are solved. Regardless of whether the research is carried out at one or two (theoretical and empirical) levels of knowledge, whether it is only scientific or applied, it usually includes the solution of methodological issues.

In general, a sociological study consists of three stages, each of which can be an independent study. First stage- proper methodological - associated with the development of a research program based on either existing knowledge and methods, or newly formed, specially designed for this study.

Questions concerning the application of general scientific principles or methods may be decided here. Both theoretical and empirical knowledge perform a methodological function at this stage. Second stage- empirical - associated with obtaining empirical knowledge. This is primarily field research, work at the facility, the collection of sociological information, its processing and analysis. As a result, empirical knowledge (statistical data, classifications) can be obtained, allowing not only to build theoretical knowledge on their basis, but also to formulate practical recommendations. Third stage- theoretical - associated with obtaining theoretical knowledge, building, for example, a typology, the formation and development of sociological theories. It is possible that practical recommendations can only be given at this stage and not at the previous one. It is also possible that, in order to formulate practical recommendations, a mere theoretical study using already existing empirical knowledge is sufficient, without conducting a special empirical study.

It is necessary to distinguish between sociological and social research.

Sociological research is devoted to the study of the laws and patterns of functioning and development of various social communities, the nature and methods of interaction between people, their joint activities. Social research, unlike sociological research, along with the forms of manifestation and mechanisms of action of social laws and patterns, involves the study of specific forms and conditions of social interaction between people: economic, political, demographic, etc., i.e., along with a specific subject (economy, politics , population) study the social aspect - the interaction of people. Thus, social research is complex; it is carried out at the intersection of sciences, that is, it is socio-economic, socio-political, socio-psychological research.

The structure of sociological knowledge can be represented as follows.

1. METHODOLOGY OF SCIENCE

Methodology levels

1. General scientific (refers to sociology in general).

2. Private scientific (refers to separate sections of sociology).

Sections of methodology

1. Worldview and methodological principles.

2. The doctrine of the subject of sociology.

3. Knowledge about methods.

4 Knowledge about sociological knowledge.

5. Knowledge about the process of sociological research.

6. History of sociology, etc.

2. KNOWLEDGE ABOUT THE SUBJECT

Levels of knowledge

1. Theoretical knowledge: sociological theories, hypotheses, typologies and other forms of theoretical knowledge.

2. Empirical knowledge: statistics, facts, classifications and other forms of empirical knowledge.

By scope

1. General scientific (for example, mathematical methods).

2. Private scientific (for example, survey methods).

By level of knowledge

1. Theoretical (axiomatic method, hypothetical-deductive method, etc.).

2. Empirical (observation, analysis of documents, etc.).

By research stages

1. Collection methods.

2. Processing methods.

3. Methods of analysis.

4. RESEARCH

(types and levels of research)

By the nature of knowledge

1. Methodological.

2. Non-methodological

By level of knowledge

1. Theoretical.

2. Empirical.

By research orientation

1. Fundamental.

2. Applied.

By subject of study

1. Sociological.

2. Complex (socio-economic, socio-political, socio-psychological, etc.).

Research stages

1. Methodological.

2. Empirical.

3. Theoretical.

Research directions

(by subject and object of study)

1. Social groups.

2. Social institutions.

3. Social organizations.

4. Sociology of labor.

5. Sociology of education, etc.

§ 4. Types of sociological theories

In the methodological literature, theories and methods, categories and concepts that are not philosophical are called specially scientific (See Philosophy, methodology, science. M., 1972 S. 7-44; Gnoseology in the system of philosophical worldview. M, 1983 C 32, 138) .

It should be noted that the distinction between philosophical and non-philosophical knowledge and the corresponding theories does not mean their absolute opposition, in a certain sense it is relative.

The field of philosophical knowledge is expanding in accordance with the general growth of specialized scientific knowledge, which does not at all exclude philosophical reflection. Philosophy in its research relies on special scientific knowledge, the latter, in turn, have their philosophical and methodological basis in philosophy.

As for sociological theories, there are several possible reasons for dividing them into different types.

General, special and branch theories. First of all, one should highlight general sociological theories, claiming to describe and explain the life of society as a whole. In sociology, as in other sciences, such as physics, biology, psychology, there are many competing general theories. This is the theory of social formations by K. Marx; the theory of social action by M. Weber; structural-functional theory of T. Parsons; P. Blau's theory of exchange; the theory of “multidimensional sociology” by J. Alexander and others. In terms of their status, they are close to one or another sociological paradigm.

Next, highlight special sociological theories, those who study social laws and patterns of functioning and development of social communities, that is, that which directly forms the subject of sociology and is associated with the categories "social", "social relations", "social interaction", "social sphere".

Complementary theories are formed at the intersection of sociology with other sciences - economics, political science, ethnography, science of science, etc. They are called industry. These theories study the forms of manifestations and mechanisms of action of social laws and patterns in various spheres of society. Their object, unlike general theories, is not society as a whole, but its individual “parts”: economics, politics, law, etc. They mediate the connection of sociology with other sciences.

The basis of their distinction is the object of study, which is reflected in the name of the sociological discipline to which they belong: "economic sociology", "political sociology", "legal sociology". These theories study various spheres of social life from the point of view of the social relations existing in them, using specific sociological categories: social group, social institution, social organization, etc. The term "sociology" in the name of these disciplines reflects a special approach to the corresponding spheres of society, due subject and method of sociology.

Special sociological theories are characterized by a higher level of abstraction than sectoral ones, and allow one and the same object, one or another social community to be considered from a certain angle, to single out one or another “section” of the object being studied that interests the sociologist, its “level”, “side ".

Special sociological theories, mediating the connection between general and sectoral theories, form the conceptual core of sociological knowledge. First, they actually develop sociological categories proper, which form a kind of matrix of the categorical-conceptual apparatus of sociology.

Secondly, as a consequence of this, special theories the subject of sociology is formed, which has no less complex structure than the subject of such sciences as physics, biology, economics, etc. Finally, thirdly, as a consequence of the two previous points, they reflect the specificity of sociological knowledge as a special type of knowledge that cannot be reduced to anything. what other. In this regard, special sociological theories (similar to the categorical-conceptual apparatus) link all branches of sociological knowledge into a single whole, regardless of its object, function and level, and the relationship between general, special and branch theories is built according to the type of feedback.

Any branch theory uses the conceptual apparatus of special sociological theories and can describe its object as a group, activity or institution. For example, the sphere of everyday life can be studied either as a set of various types of activities, or as a set of different people - carriers of the corresponding types of activity, or as a set of various institutions organizing the corresponding types of activity. Such a “one-sided” description of an object is conditional, it seems to be a certain abstraction, but it is not only permissible, but also necessary in science, since it serves as one of the means scientific research and the premise of a multilateral description of the object under study as a single whole. In the sociology of the family, for example, the latter is viewed as a small social group characterized by its own special structure of statuses and roles (group approach); a certain set of activities (the activity approach) and a specific set of norms and values ​​that regulate (organize) its functioning and development (the institutional approach).

The division of theories into general and sectoral ones makes it possible to identify the difference between general and sectoral sociology either by object (“society as a whole” and its “parts”), or by the type of theories - general ones serve as the basis for the formation sociological paradigm(however, as well as special ones - indirectly through them), and sectoral ones form a border belt at the junction of sociology with other sciences. We apply the characteristics of fundamental and theoretical sociology to the concept of general sociology, although sectoral sociology, of course, does not exclude scientific orientation and the theoretical level, but most often has an empirical and applied character. Thus, the structure of sociological knowledge appears to be multidimensional and can be described in three dimensions : by the object of knowledge (general and sectoral sociology), by the function of knowledge (fundamental and applied), by the level of knowledge (theoretical and empirical).

A special layer of theoretical sociological knowledge is formed by such theories as the theory of social development, the theory of social systems, the theory of social determinism, etc. The division of such theories is based on a number of general scientific categories: “development”, “system”, “determinism”, etc., i.e. That is, those that are applicable not only in social science, but also in natural science and, in terms of the level of abstraction, approach the philosophical categories “matter”, “consciousness”, etc. These theories can claim the status of general ones.

Fundamental and applied theories. One can also distinguish between sociological theories according to their predominant orientation: fundamental and applied. The former are focused on solving scientific problems and are associated with the formation of sociological knowledge, the conceptual apparatus of sociology, and methods of sociological research. They answer two questions: what is known? (object) and how is it known? (method), i.e., are associated with the solution of cognitive problems. The second ones are focused on solving urgent social problems, are associated with the transformation of the object under study and answer the question: what is cognized for? (See: Interaction of Sciences: Theoretical and Practical Aspects M, 1984, p. 207) Here the theories differ not in object or method, but in the goal that the sociologist sets himself, whether he solves cognitive or practical problems.

The task of applied theories is to search for means to achieve the practical goals outlined by society, that is, their task is to find ways and means of using the laws and regularities known by fundamental theories. Applied theories directly relate to certain practical branches of human activity and directly answer the question: why? - for social development, improvement of social relations, etc. The applied (practical) nature of sociological theories is determined by the contribution that they make to theories directly related to solving problems of social development.

The sign of "fundamental" does not coincide with the sign of "theoretical", and vice versa, although the second term is often used as a synonym for the first: theoretical physics, theoretical psychology, theoretical biology. Here "theoretical" means not only the theoretical level of scientific knowledge, in contrast to the empirical one, but also its theoretical, fundamental orientation, in contrast to the practical, applied one.

Theoretical knowledge acts as fundamental in comparison with applied rather than empirical knowledge and does not exclude practical orientation. Such characteristics as "practical aspect", "applied function" are quite applicable to the theoretical level of knowledge. Its antithesis is not applied knowledge, but empirical.

Thus, the division of theories according to their orientation into fundamental and applied ones is rather arbitrary, since any of them directly or indirectly makes a certain contribution to the solution of both scientific and practical problems. In the strict sense, one should speak only about the predominant orientation of a particular theory: scientific, fundamental or practical, applied, which gives grounds for its inclusion in one category or another. The same applies to empirical sociological research: they can be focused on solving scientific problems, for example, on the formation of a special sociological theory, or practical ones, related, for example, to improving the social structure of society. In fact, these two aspects of sociological knowledge are inextricably linked and, being related to sociology as a whole, ultimately form two of its functions: cognitive and practical.

So the terms "fundamental" and "applied" designate an aspect, an orientation of sociological knowledge as a whole and are not identical to the terms "theoretical" and "empirical" denoting its levels. In the first case, the division is based on the target setting, in the second - the level of abstraction.

One important circumstance should be noted here.

The division of sociological theories into levels and types on various grounds (by object, level of abstraction, sociological category, approach, method, target setting, etc.), i.e., the construction of their typology, and ultimately their justified hierarchy, one way or another reflects the complex structure of the subject of sociology, the way it is depicted, divided into “levels”, “sides”, “aspects”, “spheres”. In other words, the issues of the structure of the subject of sociology and sociological knowledge are closely related, and this, in turn, means that an adequate image of the subject of sociology requires constant improvement and development of methodological concepts related to the description of the structure of the knowledge that reflects it.

Other types of theories. Differences between dynamic and stochastic (from the Greek. stochasis- conjecture) theories consist in the nature of the laws and processes that underlie them.

Dynamic theories characterize the behavior of a system or object strictly unambiguously. Stochastic theories are based on statistical laws. These theories describe or explain the behavior of a system or object with a certain degree of probability. Stochastic(or statistical) explanation reveals the content of the system (object) in the form of certain statistical dependencies, which act as forms of manifestation of patterns that determine the behavior of this system (object). This kind of explanation always involves a greater or lesser degree of probability. This is first. And, secondly, the stochastic explanation largely depends on the theoretical analysis of the object under study. Otherwise, the statistical explanation will be divorced from the general trends in the development and functioning of this object, from the mechanism that is described in statistical dependencies.

Theories describing changes in the structure of the object under study belong to the category development theories, and theories describing the factors of stabilization of its structure constitute the class functioning theories.

Appendix

Sociology in Russia: Scientometric Analysis of the Structure of Sociological Knowledge

In the late 80s - early 90s. within research project"Trends in the change of the sociological paradigm after 1985" was an analysis of the changes that took place in the structure of sociological knowledge in the same years.

For this purpose, a special methodology was developed that makes it possible to use the databases available at the Institute of Scientific Information on Social Sciences of the Russian Academy of Sciences (INION RAS).

The conceptual model for studying the dynamics of science was based on the concept of a paradigm formulated in the works of American historians and sociologists of science R. Merton and T. Kuhn. From the point of view of their concepts, the paradigm reflects changes in the content of scientific knowledge, and thus it can serve as an indicator of these changes in science in each given period. By observing changes in the content of the paradigm over certain periods, one can solve the problems of measuring the dynamics of scientific knowledge.

This kind of measurement can be carried out by observing the changes taking place in the language of scientific communications, the main type of which is publications.

The language material, the process of its change, i.e., the increase in some and the decrease in other lexical units: keywords, terms, descriptors, etc., can be considered as a historically developing language of science, reflecting its state in each given period with a certain measure of adequacy . This material is a kind of lexical image of a scientific paradigm, the analysis of changes in which (and therefore changes in the content of the science under study) can be carried out on the basis of counting the occurrence of terms in different periods. The presence of dictionaries of normalized scientific vocabulary in various scientific areas makes such analyzes possible.

INION has formed automated databases containing annotated bibliography of books, created lists of normalized vocabulary (SNL), on the basis of which quantitative processing of the material is possible, and, consequently, its qualitative analysis.

The stages of the research program implementation were: the choice of the empirical research base, the development of appropriate methodological tools, the formation of temporary bases for compiling selective frequency dictionaries, and, finally, the analysis of the data obtained.

An analysis of changes in certain areas of sociology and sociology as a whole should begin with the construction of a working scheme - the basis of the rubricator of sociological knowledge.

The presented construction proceeds from rather simple considerations. All knowledge is divided into three large areas: knowledge about sociology, knowledge about the subject of sociology and borderline areas of research. In this regard, it is proposed to divide sociological knowledge into the following sections.

1. Sociology as a science: 1.1. general characteristics; 1.2. General scientific concepts, principles, approaches and methods in sociology; 1.3. Methodology of sociological research; 1.4. Methods and techniques of sociological research; 1.5. Mathematics and statistics in sociology.

2. General sociological categories (“social system”, “ social development", "social relations").

3. Social structure and social processes: 3.1. Social organization and social institutions; 3.2. Social stratification (large and small social groups, professional groups, demographic groups); 3.3. Social management.

4. Branches of sociology (economic sociology, political sociology, sociology of communications).

5. Interdisciplinary research (economics, law, politics).

In this scheme, sections 1 and 4 represent knowledge about sociology, 2 and 3 - knowledge about the subject of sociology, 5 - border areas of research.

The general sociological paradigm is formed in section 1, the particular sociological paradigm - in 4. The principles and approaches (included in 1.2), directions and schools (included in 1.1) represent the paradigm itself (or a paradigm in the narrow sense) and are closely related to general scientific concepts and methods. In a sense, they form a border area, formed under the influence of epistemological and ontological concepts developed in the logic and methodology of science and often inaccurately referred to as "philosophical". Such concepts, which lie outside sociological knowledge and influence its paradigm, are specific “paradigm foundations”. An area closely related to the paradigm is formed by methods, procedures, methods and techniques in which the principles and approaches of scientific research are explicitly or implicitly implemented (1.3, 1.4, 1.5). Since it is impossible to draw a hard line between them (and there is no need for this), then the paradigm in the broad sense, or “paradigm complex”, is defined as a set of principles, approaches, methods and techniques.

Section 2 is an introduction to the more detailed description of the subject of sociology offered in Section 3, and provides a picture of society as a whole without structuring it in accordance with accepted approaches. The meaning of the term "social" in section 2 is actually determined by how the subject of sociology is understood (structured) in section 3.

Section 3 reflects the subject of sociology, represented by social structure and social processes. Of course, an object can be formed in different ways, depending on what approaches are taken when describing it (structural-functional, value-normative, etc.). Three have been chosen: institutional, stratification and “cybernetic” (the name is provisional). The first two are traditionally considered sociological, and the third is applied (it is directly related to social practice).

Section 4 gives the usual traditional idea of ​​sociology as a set of various branches distinguished by the object of study (politics, law, family, etc.). There are no rigid boundaries here, since the object (but not the subject) of sociology can actually be anything, if it is of really scientific or practical interest. Therefore, in each of these branches, the knowledge of section 1 (principles and methods of sociology in general) and sections 2, 3 (the subject of sociology) are realized, and their own knowledge is also formed.

Section 5 includes fields of knowledge bordering on sociology, the objects of which coincide with the object of sociology, but they build their own subject of study.

This is the general scheme of sociological knowledge, which is its theoretical (conceptual) model.

The next task was to fill the sections listed above with appropriate terminology, representative both for the content of the sections themselves and for a possible assessment of the changes that have occurred in the paradigm of sociology.

The SNL in Philosophy and Sociology, developed at INION (taking into account the comments of domestic and foreign experts) and intended for indexing the literature entering the Automated Information System in the Social Sciences, served as the documentary basis for solving the task.

The indicated SNL was taken as the basis of the procedure for translating the theoretical (conceptual) model of the paradigm into an empirical (operational) one, consisting of many lists, on the basis of which a comparative analysis of the paradigm change in different periods of time was carried out. On the basis of each thematic section (subsection), selective frequency dictionaries of terms were developed.

The selection of terms for these dictionaries from the general list of SNL was carried out with the help of experts specializing in different areas of sociological knowledge. Then the selected lists of concepts-words, the most characteristic and commonly used in each of the designated sections of sociology, were converted into frequency dictionaries by calculating the frequency of their occurrence on a computer. It should be emphasized that absolute frequency values ​​are not suitable for dynamic comparisons of the use of certain terms - one should use the percentage of occurrence, that is, the share of the use of individual terms in the total number of word usages for the corresponding period.

Until now, the method based on the analysis of the frequency of occurrence of terms in normalized scientific vocabulary has been used to assess the development of certain scientific areas, mainly natural and technical. It was found that as a direction develops, the occurrence of terms characterizing it increases. If the number of works devoted to one or another direction falls, then this in a certain way affects the terminology inherent in it - the number of terms decreases. Stable scientific areas are also characterized by the stability of the terminology that characterizes them, which is statistically assigned to them.

In the social sciences, in particular sociology, such processes are not so unambiguous. Here, the dynamics of individual terms (or groups of terms) should be approached more carefully, because along with elements of spontaneous, natural development, there is a normatively given so-called social order and an ideological situation that directly or indirectly affects the choice of topics and the number of social scientists involved in them. and therefore also on the number of publications, the number of concepts characterizing these topics.

The analysis of the obtained data made it possible to fix the following changes that occurred in the sociological paradigm from the late 80s to the early 90s.

1. The transition from socio-philosophical themes (historical materialism) to the actual sociological, the formation of sociological knowledge, irreducible to socio-philosophical.

2. Transferring the center of gravity from the study of purely methodological (instrumental, operational) problems to the study of conceptual (semantic) and value (ethical) problems.

3. Turn from general, abstract problems to more specific, concrete ones. A more realistic view of the state of affairs in society.

4. Transition from the study of social statics to the study of social dynamics.

5. The transition from the predominant study of objective factors of social development to the predominant study of subjective factors. The turn of sociology towards the person

6. Significant weakening of the critical orientation towards foreign non-Marxist sociology.

7. And, finally, a partial rejection of the "scientific" service of the dominant state ideology.

In 1993-1994 within the framework of this project, another study was conducted, which became an important part of studying the development of domestic sociology. The task was to compare the paradigms and structures of knowledge in Russian and Western sociology for the period from 1987 to 1992, to identify their similarities and differences; to show the dependence of scientific (sociological) consciousness on non-scientific (social) consciousness; to compare public consciousness, as well as the mentality of Russian and Western societies (cultures).

This study is based on the following premises.

1. Thinking, and therefore consciousness, has a categorical structure and thus can be represented by a system or set of categories fixed in the national language.

2. The national (or cultural) mentality, as well as the public (national) consciousness, is reflected in the scientific consciousness (the consciousness of the scientific community), and the latter is represented in the scientific literature.

3. The literature on English language because: a) it makes up almost half (49.7%) of all foreign literature on philosophy and sociology received by INION (data before 1992); b) the paradigm and national mentality based on German-language literature (15.5% of the total number of foreign publications) is difficult to determine due to the existence of both the FRG and the GDR in the study period, and literature in French - only 7%.

4. The categorical structure of thinking (consciousness) makes it possible to use a system or a set of categories as a "tool" for studying the state and tendencies of the national (or cultural) mentality.

On the basis of these prerequisites, a conceptual research model was built, consisting of a description of four main sections (“public consciousness”, “sociological paradigm”, “general sociology” and “sectoral sociology”), and their subsequent operationalization was carried out by compiling terminological tables.

The operational model was a set (set) of categories-terms taken from the SNL, characterizing: 1) spheres, main characteristics and values ​​of public consciousness; 2) elements of the sociological paradigm; 3) elements of general and 4) sectoral sociology. The dichotomy "general-branch" was chosen because it is easier to fix the terminological difference here than in the other two: "theoretical-empirical" and "fundamental-applied".

Based on the data analysis, the following results were obtained.

Russian consciousness is characterized by the predominance of spiritual values. It has a prophetic (prophetic) character associated with striving for the future. The Russian consciousness is holistic and humanitarian (the problem of personality clearly prevails), the Western one is pragmatically rationalistic (common sense prevails). Russian consciousness is more historical and aesthetic (artistic), Western - theological and ethical. The Western consciousness is preoccupied with the problems of the social structure, while the Russian one is more ideological and politicized.

The problem of creativity clearly predominates in the Russian mentality.

In Western sociology, problems of freedom and equality prevail, in Russian - problems of creativity. Sociology reflects the institutional (moderate) nature of the Western mentality, in contrast to the transformative (radical) nature of the Russian one. Russian sociology is characterized by the fundamental (theoretical) nature of knowledge, while Western sociology is characterized by the formatization (categorization) of knowledge.

Russian social knowledge is dominated by social philosophy, while Western social theory is dominated by social theory. Russian sociology is characterized by a clear dominance of the historical approach, while Western sociology is characterized by the stratification approach. In Russian sociology, the theory of activity prevails, in Western sociology - the theory of action. Western sociology is characterized by organizational problems, while Russian sociology is characterized by managerial problems.