Source study Danilevsky boars medushevskaya. Danilevsky I.N., Kabanov V.V., Medushevskaya O.M., Rumyantseva M.F. Source study: Theory. History. Method. Sources of Russian history

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INSTITUTE

OPEN SOCIETY

BBK 63.2 I 73

Reviewers:

Dr. East. Sciences A.P. Nenarokov
Dr. ecom. Sci. L.V. Poletaev
Dr. East Sciences A.L. Yastrebitskaya

Educational literature
on humanitarian
and social disciplines
for high school
and secondary specialized
educational institutions
prepared and published
assisted by
The Institute
Open Society
(Soros Foundation)
within the program
"Higher education".
Author's views and approaches
not necessarily the same
with the position of the program.
In especially controversial cases
alternative
point of view
reflected in the prefaces
and afterwords.

Editorial Council:

IN AND. Bakhmin

L.M. Berger

E.Yu. Genieva

G.G. Diligensky

V.D. Shadrikov

Original Russian Text © V.V. Kabanov, 1998
Original Russian Text © O. M. Medushevskaya, 1998
Original Russian Text © M.F. Rumyantsev, 1998
© Institute

Open Society, 1998
© Russian State
Humanities University,
original layout, 1998

INTRODUCTION

GET information about a person, public
ve, the state, about the events that took place at different times and in
different parts of the world, it is possible only relying on the historical
sources. The works that people create in pro
conscious process, purposeful action serve them
to achieve specific goals. They also carry valuable information
formation about those people and about the time when they were created.
To get it, you need to understand the features of the emerging
novelties of historical sources. However, it is necessary not only because
attract, but also critically evaluate, interpret correctly.
Studying fragments of the past reality, it is important to be able to do
logical inferences about what the very fact of their imposition means
lichia, to be able to reproduce on their basis the interconnected
a picture of that culture, that society, the remnant of which they are
go. This knowledge and skills are necessary not only for historians,
but also to a wider circle of specialists in the humanities. Che-
human experience, everyday lifestyle, relationships between
people of different generations, customs and mores, the ability to exist
to live in the natural environment, the desire to know the past of your city
yes, village, region, its people or ethnic group, clan or
families force people to turn to documents, archives,
rinny objects, photographs. The circle of problems that are of interest
resurrection of historians has also expanded significantly. New history
richesky science is engaged, in contrast to the traditional, not only
to and not so much by the events of political life, but addressed to
global history of mankind. Celebrations and ceremonies, myths
and fairy tales, raising children, crafts and trades, trade and
men, art and beliefs, prohibitions and hobbies - all cognizes-
Xia in comparison and gives rise to new thoughts and judgments. Therefore, use
torics actively interact in the study of these phenomena with
representatives of other humanitarian and natural sciences- co-
cyologists, anthropologists, ethnologists, psychologists, historians

6 INTRODUCTION

Mi science and art, language and literary researchers
texts. Humanitarians study the historical
sources, finding in them inexhaustible resources of new information
tion about humanity, its creative possibilities and various
ways to capture your experience, express your inner world
in material images.

Historian, anthropologist, sociologist, psychologist, politician - everyone
of them turns to sources with their questions, seeking
learn about what constitutes the subject of the studied spiders.
But they all draw their information from the general population.
sources created by humans. Therefore, the specialist should
to understand that the total set of sources is a projected
culture in time, a treasury of human knowledge
and world experience. He must be able to find and select those
types of sources that are especially important and interesting for
given spiders; be able to pose questions, find sources from
veta, to be able to distinguish the voices of people of the past, carried to
us historical sources, and interpret these data
ny in accordance with the modern level of science and culture.
The science that deliberately deals with these problems is a source of
business studies.

In traditional historical science, the methods of source study
were usually considered in relation to the history of a separate
country or era. The country-specific approach guides
researcher na review of the main sources on the history of the country
us, which, of course, is very important and necessary. However, in our
the present time, it is obvious that to study a separate epoch or from
a separate region, a country is possible only in a wider
kah, in a long historical perspective, using a comp
efficient approaches. And then it becomes obvious that there was
notion of sources has its own logic, many types of sources
kov appear (and sometimes disappear) naturally, expressing
which are repetitive, comparable cultural
situations. Therefore, it is possible to single out common problems of the source
study and develop principles and methods of working with the source
kami. This tutorial is dedicated to this, which gives
basic scientific guidelines for the study of source studies
and his method. The authors show why source studies
important and necessary for history education, for scientific
activities in the field of humanitarian knowledge, for self-
development and cultural identity. Discovery guide
provides approaches to historical sources, reveals the method of
precision studies as a general humanitarian, as a special way of posture
knowledge of reality.
INTRODUCTION 7

The basis study guide a single concept is laid. She
implemented in theoretical and methodological and concrete
boards. First, the general properties of the source
kov and the principles of their teaching; it is shown that these common properties
the state and the methods of study themselves were developed within the framework of society
toric research. Only in modern times have they become
the subject of methodological works. Based on modern
methods of understanding sources, a method of source
nikological analysis and synthesis, which is investigated especially.
In those parts of the manual, which highlight the problems of typological
sources, their main types and methods of studying them -
new specific techniques, the authors refer to the sources
studying Russian history analyzing them in historical
perspective - from ancient times to modern times. it
became possible because source studies as a science of
sources in Russia took shape by the end of the 19th century. and develops into
the entire XX century.

By now, the new status of the source has been determined.
studies in the humanities. Its essence lies in
the fact that the historical source (product of culture, objectified
the result of human activity) acts as a single
ny object of various humanitarian spiders with a variety of their
subjects of study. Thus, it creates a unified basis for
interdisciplinary research and integration of sciences, and
for comparative historical analysis.

Change in the status and content of source studies, as well as
the very nature of the modern epistemological situation causes
the need for a new approach and to teaching sources
of coeducation.

The available textbooks were created based on the methodology
positivism, and in some cases they are written in ideologized
spirit, which makes it difficult to perceive the
the factual material is methodologically weak
prepared reader. They lack systemic information.
study of the theory of source studies, little attention is paid to the
toodiks of source studies, their development is not shown.
twist.

V Soviet time source studies could develop pre-
property in conjunction with archival affairs, which is partly
explains his orientation towards the sources of Russian history. V
educational literature will provide an overview of the corpus of domestic sources
nicknames (Tikhomirov M.N. Source study of the history of the USSR. M.,
1962; Source study of the history of the USSR in the XIX - early XX centuries. /
Ed. I.A. Fedosov. M., 1970; Source study of history

8 INTRODUCTION

USSR / Ed. I. D. Kovalchenko. M., 1981; Chernomorsky M.N.
Source study of the history of the USSR: Soviet period. M., 1976).
Literature considering sources from other countries is
introduced by a few textbooks and courses of lectures
studies on the study of sources of modern and recent history (educational
the manuals of I.V. Grigorieva, R.S. Mnukhina, a course of lectures by I. Ya. Bis-
ka) that are overview or fragmentary. The exception is
The fundamental work of A.D. Lublin "Source Study
the Middle Ages "(L., 1955), the factual material of which
vast and enduring. However, due to the thematic presentation
zhenia, it is difficult to compare the sources
the middle ages. In modern conditions, when interest in
comparative historical research, it is necessary to expand
rite the framework of the presentation and go from regional geographic to prob-
lemno-specific principle of material presentation. In this case,
rhetoric of the sources of Russian history will preserve not only the
valuable, but also methodological value. Typology and period-
evolution of the evolution of the corpus of Russian historical sources,
as the most systemically and holistically developed, provide the basis
for typological consideration and comparative study
corpus of historical sources of other countries.

A modern textbook should not only convey the necessary
the amount of knowledge, but also to form the ability of independent
work in this branch of science. To achieve this goal
required:

First, the clarity of the methodological position with one
temporary coverage of fundamental issues in other scientific
new paradigms;

Secondly, increased attention to the methodology and technique of the source
nicology research;

Thirdly, as a synthesis of the first two positions - historiographic
clarity of presentation, disclosure of the dependence of the research method
historical sources from general scientific and historical sources
todology.

The authors - to the best of their ability - sought to balance the lighting
to list historical sources arising in the personal, general
social and state spheres; justify the source
Vedic criterion for comparative historical research;
to reveal the interdisciplinary connections of source studies, consider
three source studies as an integrating discipline in the
the system of the humanities; show various methodological
approaches to solving the most significant problems; research-
to develop methods for studying the main types of historical
sources.
INTRODUCTION 9

This approach allows you to study written sources in
relationship with other types of historical sources (material
artistic, pictorial, technotronic, etc.), overcome
previously developed limitation by a range of sources, arose
in the system of socio-economic and political relations
shenii.

In the tutorial offered to the readers' attention, general
the experience of the scientific and pedagogical school of the Moscow historical
Riko Archives Institute. Her theoretical basis is an
a holistic concept of humanitarian knowledge, developed in
early XX century. the outstanding Russian scientist A.S. Lappo-Danilev-
skim. What exactly distinguishes this source study school
lu? Let us dwell on three fundamental points:
the concept of "historical source" (subject of research),
the structure of source analysis (research method),
the role of the researcher's consciousness in historical knowledge (methodology
logic).

Systemic importance for any scientific discipline-
us has a definition of it subject. In the Soviet historical
science dominated (and in many ways continues to hold
their positions) determining that historical source - it's all,
where you can get information about the development of society. Topics
the nature of the historical source, its
substance, but only the function is indicated (to serve in the historical
knowledge) of some unknown object or phenomenon. V
the textbook presented, the historical source of the
viewed as a work created by man, as a
duct of culture. The emphasis is on understanding the psychological
and the social nature of the historical source, which is also taught
finds its suitability "for the study of facts with historical
value ".

The indicated differences in the definition of historical
source have a deep methodological basis, since, in
ultimately, caused by different understandings of the object of historical
iical knowledge. The first definition comes from the premise of
variability of the historical past, its implementation in
certain forms, which makes the past of the object
volume of historical knowledge. General method such a pose
nany is more and more accurate modeling of this
the only possible past. We understand the historical
the past as reconstruction. It is based on a dialogue of consciousness
(and the psyche as a whole) of a researcher with consciousness (and psyche)
people who lived before. Dialogue begins with understanding “other-
go "(man of the past), objective (materialized) basis

10 INTRODUCTION

Sing what is “the realized product of the human psy-
hiki ”is a historical source. It is he who allows in the course
interpretations to reproduce "animate" (psyche,
individuality) of its creator.

Different understanding of the subject of source study leads to a different
lychia and in understanding it method. A.S. Lappo-Danilevsky, op-
classifying the historical source as “a realized product
human psyche, suitable for studying facts from the
richeskoe meaning ", sought through the interpretation of the historical
the source to understand its author - a man of the past. Yes-
more on this basis, a historical construction is carried out,
that is, the historical fact is comprehended not only in coexistence
social (coexisting), but, first of all, in evolution
on the whole. In other words, from the standpoint of modernity, you can
but to reveal the value and effectiveness of the fact, its historical
meaning. Moreover, to understand the concept of Lappo-Danilev-
it is important to constantly remember that he shared the source
ical research and historical construction only analy-
technically. In the process of research, and he perfectly understood this
small, these components are inseparable. In the Marxist paradigm
the historical source is viewed only as a repository
facts necessary for the historian to build (reconstruction)
invariant past. It is because of this, both in science and
in teaching, the source study method often turned into
the technique of obtaining "reliable" information. At the same time,
The method of actual source study was lost.
Recognition of the unity of the method of source study
in the source study school of the Historical and Archival Institute yes
has a holistic understanding of source analysis and synthesis
for, which are considered as a system of research
procedures. None of the elements of the system can be omitted
without prejudice to the correctness of the final result. Primary
Foamy attention is paid to the characteristics of the author, the circumstances
the principles of creating a historical source, its significance in the context
the text of the reality that gave birth to it. And only research
the whole range of problems associated with the origin of the
source and with its functioning in the era that gave birth to it,
allows you to go (in an analytical, not in a temporal sense)
le) to the interpretation of the content, the assessment of information and the source
nickname in general.

A distinctive feature of the source study paradigm,
going to the heritage of Lappo-Danilevsky, is that in
it considers not only the ratio of the source and the
reality, according to and the interaction of the cognizing subject and

INTRODUCTION 11

A reference for the interrelated analysis of these aspects. In History
the co-archival institute has always paid special attention to various
the views of the author of the historical source, views,
established in historiography at different stages of its development, and
the point of view of the researcher. Without this, self-reliance is impossible.
a solid historical synthesis. Moreover, the
The danger of unconsciously introducing the prevailing
graphs of points of view and assessments in a different era, in the context of another
an evolutionary whole. The novice researcher is constantly
focused on analyzing the content of your own consciousness, you
the phenomenon of the origin and structure of those historical representations
phenomena that developed in his study of historiography
fi and in the process of their own research work. Poet-
to that in the concept of the Historical and Archival Institute (in contrast to
the dominant traditional model of education) emphasis
is done to clarify the cognitive process. In this case,
fighting factualism is seen as a means of developing
critical judgment skills.

Changing ideological perceptions in the post-Soviet
society has led to the loss methodological foundations... At
this significant part of the humanities) continue to think in
the framework of the paradigm, which is only due to ignorance of the concept
Marx can be called "Marxist". This led to an attempt
kam to rethink and write an "objective" story without re-
revision of the actual research methodological apparatus
that. In such a situation, the source study component of the
concept provides the basis for the desired objectivity and allows you to
who should first approach source analysis, and then -
under the influence of consistency - and to the historical synthesis.

This epistemological system provides an adequate way to
solutions most urgent problems modern human
tary cognition: “the principle of recognizing someone else's animate
sti "and the concept of Lappo-Danilevsky allows you to turn the
thorium face to person. Recognition of a cultural product as
ve common object of the humanities and social sciences (while
their subjects differ) provides a basis for a comparative historical
richeskikh and interdisciplinary research.

The postmodern challenge poses many new epistemological
logical problems, but at the same time blurs in the minds of the
investigators of the border of strictly scientific humanitarian knowledge. V
under these conditions, the source study concept, the idea of a historical
source as a realized product of human
psyche, the system of historical sources as a projection of spiritual
a good life allows humanitarian knowledge to gain ground

12 INTRODUCTION

For different interpretations. The idea of coexistential and
the evolutionary whole and understanding the ways of its construction
provides a philosophical basis for a holistic perception of the historical
sky process.

The development of source studies as one of the historical
uk, the formation of its interdisciplinary connections and differentiation
the rentiation of the taught courses is due to a new approach to the structure
tour and content of the course of source study. In the study of the corpus-
Russian historical sources play a significant role
is based on the principles of comparative consideration of sources
different countries, regions, civilizations.

The purpose of the tutorial is to substantiate the basic principles
knowledge of modern source studies, especially its special
th method. This method allows you to study historical sources
ki as a whole set (systemically), as a set
works created in the course of the historical process, acts
of people who tried to solve their own
important problems for yourself. Accordingly, this set
source has universal homogeneity, interrelated
knowledge, typological characteristics. This method allows
understands the typology of historical sources (based on the
ley their creation and functions in social reality) and find
give general approaches to their study. These are the possibilities of the source
nikology as an anthropologically oriented paradigm
we are a new historical science, covering essentially all
aspects of the history and functioning of culture. Therefore, auto-
ry and talk about a general humanitarian approach to historical history
sources using this method.

In the first part of the tutorial, the method of source study
shown from a general theoretical point of view, in its formation and
modern form. The ways of studying a holistic combination are shown.
a collection of historical sources, specific sources
Vedic situations, their differences at different stages of development
society.

In this part, the relevance of source research is substantiated.
study and its method in the system of humanitarian knowledge in modern
noisy epistemological situation, which is characterized by
striving for the integration of sciences and interdisciplinary inter-
action. In these conditions, the question of
about the object of humanities, in connection with which it is considered
the concept of a historical source, subject and tasks of the source
reference. The historical source is interpreted as objectified
bath result of human activity, as a carrier
fundamentally verifiable information as a phenomenon
INTRODUCTION 13

Culture, which allows you to reveal the systemic meaning
source study in humanitarian knowledge.

In the second part of the manual, the source study method reveals
based on the material of sources of Russian history in its entirety
and time duration. Such a choice of an object is
does not meet the set goal. Consideration of the corpus of the source
kov Russian history allows the reader to understand how
at the same time, the method of source analysis and synthesis uses
when working with a specific material, how types are formed
new methods, taking into account the peculiarities of various historical
iCal sources.

The study of the sources of precisely Russian history allows
the authors can rely on the rich traditions and achievements of Russian
source culture and teaching of source
conduct as a special discipline. In turn, the historian-country
noved, striving to understand the source study situation, studied
the country he wants (culture, ethnos, etc.), gets enough
developed model of approach to a holistic set of
historical sources, he will clearly see the research
situations, problems and possible solutions. Pre-
the lagged approach brings, thus, to a new level of
general and special phenomena in the heritage of source studies,
which can be studied from the comparative standpoint of the unity of
human experience and its individual originality.

The principle of periodization of the evolution of cor-
pusa sources, adopted in the tutorial. The original chro-
nological border is the XI century. - the time from which the
written sources were kept Ancient Rus... Evolved
the species structure of their complex characteristic of the Middle Ages,
reflected in the first section of the second part of the educational
benefits.

At the turn of the XVII-XVIII centuries. and during the XVIII century. in Russia pro
there were cardinal changes in the properties of historical
sources, their species structure. Lost at the same time
of paramount importance are such types of sources as chronicles
life, hagiographic literature, memoiristics, artistic
military literature, scientific works, including historical
sky, periodicals, statistical sources. Existing
the nature of legislation, acts and
production materials. If not limited to research
we eat only written sources, it can be noted that almost
at the same time as personal sources such as memo-
ares, portrait painting also originated in Russia. So there is
major changes in the structure of the corpus of Russian sources

14 INTRODUCTION

The stories were driven by profound changes in both
siyskom society, and in the mentality of an individual.
Similar changes occurred at about the same time.
went to other European countries.

As a hypothesis explaining the reasons for these changes
niy, the authors accept the concept of the evolution of self-consciousness through
human personality and changes in human relationships and
society. The processes noted above are associated with the allocation
a person from the surrounding social environment, awareness of it
historical variability, which is typical for the transition from
the middle ages to modern times.

The corpus of sources also changes significantly during the transition
to modern times. Fixing these changes and allows
detect in the history of individual countries the period of transition from
from one era to another. At this time, the unifying
the influence of the social environment on the human personality and
the influence of the social group on the self-awareness of the individual
sti, which, apparently, is largely associated with the formation of the
production that changed the nature of labor, increased
the alienation of a person from the final result of his labor
activities and unifying the surrounding human life
wow Wednesday.

Analysis of the corpus of sources of Russian history shows
that the changes corresponding to the transition from modern times to
the newest, are found in the second half of the XIX century. and on ru-
the beginning of the XIX-XX centuries. There is a tendency towards unification of the form and
the content of many types of written sources, -
materials, periodicals up to
to such a personal source as memoirs, partly
falling depending on the picture of events formed
mass media. In general, significantly increased
the specific gravity of sources, initially, already at the time of
nips intended for publication in one or another
form. In addition, at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. began to change and
types of sources: photographic and cinematic materials appeared, later - ma-
bus-readable documents, which probably indicated
global changes in the history of mankind. And in this regard,
possibly the emergence of machine-readable documents compared
apparently with the emergence of writing and the emergence of written is
sources. After all, the types of sources, like species, do not appear
temporarily. And the sequence of occurrence of the main types
new sources: material - pictorial - written
ny - quite corresponds to the sequence of three stages in
development of mankind: savagery - barbarism - civilization.
INTRODUCTION 15

From the corpus of sources of modern times, sources
nicknames of the Soviet era. This is primarily due to
strong ideological influence on all spheres of society
military life and suppression of the individual, which determined the special
citation of historical sources. However, we note that historical
Soviet and post-Soviet era sources are based on
itself and the most essential features of the sources of new and new
very soon. This showed the continuity with the
som sources of the previous period of the Russian
rria, which is explained by the traditionalism of Russian society
and typological similarities between absolutist and totalitarian
states.

Mastering the sources of new and modern times is
distinctly different from studying the corpus of Russian sources
period of ancient and medieval Russia. Considering evolution
types of sources of the Middle Ages, it is possible and necessary to orient
focus on the most notable monuments, such as "Po-
message of bygone years "," Russian Truth ", etc. Due to the huge
quantitative growth of sources in modern and modern times
this approach is not possible. It is necessary to build a model of the view
and trace its evolution, attracting individual monuments in
as real samples. To prove these constructions
any reader can use any
sources known to him (memoirs, journalistic works
denia, etc.).

The study of source studies assumes that the student has already
familiar with history, at least at the level of factography. Therefore not
clarifies the historical events, are not given
curriculum vitae of persons known from the general course of
torii, and is not given a chronologically consistent presentation
material.

Source analysis and synthesis is a system of research
software procedures, none of the elements of which can
be omitted without prejudice to the end result. This system,
set out in the first part of the tutorial, equally
applies to all types of sources reviewed in
second part. That is why, in the chapters of the second part, he does not pay
Xia special attention to the methodology of source study
knowledge, however, source analysis of each type of source
richeskikh sources has its own specifics, which and reveals
as needed in the relevant chapters. In the review
re historical sources, it is not the method of their source
Vedic analysis, and those of its individual elements that are
cterns for a given species. The student's task is independent

16 INTRODUCTION

But to apply source analysis to each type of source
ricical sources in full.

We also note the inevitable non-uniformity of the presentation of the
the material. In more detail, those sections are written that are fully
are absent in the available educational literature, as well as those
which contain the results of our own research
activities of the authors, tested in teaching practice,
but underrepresented in scientific publications or reflected
There are approaches that are fundamentally different from the generally accepted ones.

In general, the textbook summarizes the accumulated in the history
riography experience in the development of certain types of historical
sources. Cognitive theoretical (epistemological) and
the corresponding pedagogical concept of the authors is based
on the idea of a historical source as a general
ect of the humanities and system-interconnected medium
information in the human sciences. Therefore, source study
acts as one of the fundamental disciplines in education
research institute of a specialist in the humanities, and the method of source study - is
exact study analysis and synthesis - there is that research
a method that should be mastered by a humanities professional.

SECTION 1

THEORY OF SOURCE STUDIES

Source study: a special method
knowledge of the real world

In HUMAN activities, it is often
so that in the process of achieving specific goals at the same time
but valuable experience is gained. For example, when traveling, people
accumulated experience and knowledge about the Earth. From travel experience for-
practical geography was world wide, and then science - geo-
graphy. Something similar happens in the development of wealth.
human experience - historical science, historical en-
tropology, human science. Get information about people
can be done in two ways - direct observation, general
niya, dialogue. However, this method has significant limitations.
niya: we only see what is happening here and now. For
to find out about what is happening elsewhere, you need a different
the path is mediated. At the same time, we study works that
deliberately and purposefully created by people - manuscripts,
books, things. We use the same method when we are
we create works, expressing our inner world in them,
giving a message about himself to people, to humanity. These works in
sources of knowledge - historical sources already
have long been the subject of attention of researchers, primarily
historians, because historical science specifically addresses
refers to the experience of the past. Seeking to summarize their working methods
with historical sources, the science of man forms a special
Buying an area of research. Due to its main content
she began to be called source studies.
SECTION 1

Source study developed as a special discipline of pre-
first of all, within the framework of the methodology of historical research,
since it is historical science that systematically uses
There are historical sources for the purposes of cognition. During its
the formation of source study summarizes scientific research
scientific and publishing (archaeographic) experience, accumulating
in the process of working with literary and artistic, physical
philosophical, legal works in the classical philosophical
logic, philosophical hermeneutics, literary criticism and linguistic
studies, history of law and other areas of knowledge. Since olden times,
there was a special group of disciplines that have accumulated experience of working with
specific types of sources, - the so-called auxiliary
historical disciplines (paleography, sphragistics, di-
plomatic, codicology and many others). They help research
partners correctly read the texts, identify them, support
prepare historical documents for scientific publication and
use. Traditionally, source study is associated with the study
the historian's pioneering activities, and therefore sometimes
they talk about historical source studies, historical
sources. However, it is now clear that the problem
we, which specially develops source studies, are
are considered not only in historical science, but in much more
the broader interdisciplinary space of humanitarian
research. At the same time, methods of source study are important
for many areas of humanitarian knowledge. Therefore, studying
problems of source study should not start with the history of its
formation, and from questions of theory - its theoretical and cognitive
corporeal (epistemological) foundations.

Source studies are currently
a special method of humanitarian knowledge. Humanitarian knowledge
aims to increase and systematize knowledge about a person
(in the entirety and integrity of this phenomenon) and society
(the phenomenon of humanity in its temporal and spatial
unity). The methods of source study also serve general purposes.
Source studies are improving their methods and cognition.
means in accordance with the general epistemological
(theoretical and cognitive) principles of humanitarian
knowledge and, in turn, enriches knowledge about a person and a person
party with specific cognitive means. Metho-
long history of source study is represented by a system of knowledge, words
living initially primarily in historical science, and
also in other humanitarian spiders. She has unity
theoretical postulates, historical and practical experience of developing
vitality and research method.
THEORY OF SOURCE STUDIES 21

Source study has a specific subject and is
uses a special method of cognizing objective reality. How
known to exist in objective reality as natural
objects that arise outside of human activity and are not
depending on it, and cultural objects created in the process
purposeful, conscious activity of people. Objects
cultures are created, processed, nurtured by people who persecute
when creating them, specific practical goals. Exactly these
objects carry special information about the people who created them, and about
those types of public organizations, human communities,
and which these goals were set and realized. Objects, co-
created by nature without human participation, source study is
does not study, because it does not have a special
al (natural-scientific) methods. To get up to-
additional information, it refers, among other things, to natural
scientific areas of knowledge. Study of cultural objects
as sources of information about a person and society is the main
the task of source study.

1. The real world and its knowledge

Thus, source studies represent
is a method of knowing the real world. The object in this case is
there are cultural objects created by people - works,
cabbage soup, records, documents. By what properties of cultural
objects to know the real world? Since the works (from-
deeds, things, records, documents, etc.) people create purpose-
explicitly, these works reflect both these goals and the way
events of their achievements, and the opportunities that people have
lagged at one time or another, in certain conditions. That's why,
studying works, you can learn a lot about the people who
created, and this way of knowing mankind is widely used
uses. In early human communities of oral culture
people used the created
other people things - tools, tools, household items
or luxuries, weapons and much more - not only directly
the purpose of these items, but also as sources of information
tion. Considering, comparing, evaluating, reasoning logically
giving, people extracted for themselves important information about new for
their culture. Therefore, many customs associated with dialogue
cultures, accompanied by the exchange of gifts. These customs, ascending
going back to antiquity, they can significantly supplement
social information that can be conveyed verbally,

22 SECTION 1

With direct personal communication. By them you can judge
about the wealth of the country, which people have already learned to use,
about the level of development of technology, craft, lifestyle, system
value orientations, levels of science and culture. The
a way of obtaining information about the human community gives
great opportunities, because it is focused on the main person
a spiritual property - the ability to create, create, objec-
ration your thoughts and ideas in material images.
The emergence of writing, and later technical means
fixation and transmission of information, its replication meaning
have expanded the information field of human civilization
zation, qualitatively changed and change it.

“One of the main differences is between the spoken language and the writing
change. Of these, the first is purely temporary, and the
the latter connects time with space. If we listen to
sounds, then, while reading, we usually see in front of us a
visible letters, and the time of the written flow of words for us
timo: we can read and reread, moreover, we can
get ahead of ourselves. The listener's subjective anticipation transformed
is presented in the objectifiable anticipation of the reader: he can
to look ahead of time at the end of a letter or novel, "wrote ling-
whist and literary critic P.O. Jacobson 1. Source object
fixed speech serves as a time associated with space
bystvo. This condition is necessary and sufficient for research
(not just perception).

2. Fixed sources of information
about reality

How do people convey social
formation, exchange it? This happens in the first place
on the level of personal communication - with the help of words (verbal
communication) and various non-verbal ways of conveying information
mation - facial expressions, movements, gestures (non-verbal general
nie). Most often, one is complemented by the other. This way of human
knowledge is quite informative. But it has a su-
a significant drawback - personal communication is limited in time
neither (happening here and now) and in space. All the rest
may remain unknown because either
but, either happened or is happening elsewhere. Human
that differs from other living beings that he has learned to create
to create works expressing his goals and intentions, and was able to

THEORY OF SOURCE STUDIES 23

Understand that these works can become sources of information
mation. This situation will create a potential opportunity
source approach. As a result, people accumulate
everyday experience and pass it on to future generations.
To do this, they encode information in material objects.
(creating a document, record, drawing, product, work),
i.e. in fixed sources of information. This moment is
is fundamentally important for understanding the method of source
reference. This is a method of cognition of the surrounding world through fixed
bathroom sources of information. The ability to create
knowledge makes a person - a Master, creator, creator; gives
him the opportunity to realize himself, his power over time and
wandering. She gives him this way of communicating with others like her-
mi, which other living beings do not have. It is because
it is praiseworthy to speak of a reasonable man as a creator and in that
the degree to which a person is aware of this ability in himself, how about
artist and craftsman. The need for creativity - transmission in ma-
territorially fixed form (a thing or record - depicted
name or designation) is a truly human feature
ness. Man is always instinctively aware of it as essential.
The impossibility of its realization destroys him as a person, and,
on the contrary, any possibility of creativity serves for his self-
identification. In this sense, source study is based on
an essential human property and therefore is an anthropo
a logically oriented method of cognition of the real world
ra. Use of a product, a work made by man
things as a source of information about him (and about his time and his
space) is originally inherent in humanity, therefore,
taken for granted. No matter how pa-
joyfully, people have not wondered for a long time how
the way this information is obtained, what happens in this case.
Source studies study these questions purposefully. Ta-
thus, source study is a special scientific method of
knowledge of the real world. The focus is on learning
the space in which this method is implemented
knowledge of the world: how exactly a person (cognizing subject) finds
dits and studies an object (serving as a source of knowledge) as
what questions does he pose, what kind of logic is guided by
Xia, seeking response information, in other words - what kind of
does he use a tod? Source studies considers the question of
which people did not think for a long time: what, in fact,
occurs when studying information from historical sources
kov. Constantly referring to this way of knowing realistically
th world, social practice has accumulated a rich experience of communication

24 SECTION 1

With works of art, literature, legal, social
information.

This experience began to be generalized within the framework of the methodology of history
ri. After all, it is historical science that experiences a special
cited in relation to direct observation that she
would like to study. It is sometimes said that historical science has studied
loves the past. This definition is very arbitrary and imprecise. In-
first, because the concept of "past" is vague. Between
"Past" and "present" is not so easy to spend a clear time
change border. Apparently, the distinction between the past and the present
it requires a different, non-chronological, approach. Proceeding
from the source paradigm, we will adhere to
the basic meaning of these concepts: the past is what has passed,
that is, it is completed, and the present is what is in the process
all changes. The present is happening here and now, it can be
therefore, observe, be aware, emotionally perceived
mother, etc. But it continues, and therefore, strictly speaking,
cannot be studied scientific methods... That is why human
the state has always tried to "stop the moment", persistently
invented means for this purpose - drawing, writing,
typography, photography, cinema, sound recording. Essential
what matters is the fundamental possibility of repeated,
repeated reference to the past reality, its fix
bath in the form of a material image image.

A necessary condition for the scientific study of reality is
There is a possibility of its fixed imprinting. These are fictitious
sealed impressions and are the main source of
knowledge. Source study is a special method of studying these sources.
sources. It is quite obvious that without sources it cannot
dispense with historical science, since it studies the past, in
including very far from modernity. Source scientist-
in this case acts as a method of studying the past reality
ness through human perception, fixed
bathroom in the sources. Another thing is also obvious: without resorting to
knowledge of reality is generally impossible for sources. Follow-
therefore, the method of source study is necessary for the humanitarian
knowledge in general.
THEORY OF SOURCE STUDIES 25

Source study: Theory. History. Method. Sources of Russian history: Textbook. allowance / I.N. Danilevsky, V.V. Kabanov, O.M. Medushevskaya, M.F. Rumyantseva. - M .: Rossiysk. state humanizes. un-t, 1998 .-- 702 p.
ISBN 5-7281-0090-2

The textbook corresponds to the new status of source study in the modern epistemological situation, characterized by the strengthening of polymethodologism, the desire to humanize historical knowledge, the strengthening of integration processes.The concept of the book is based on the theoretical understanding of the fact that a historical source (a product of culture, an objectified result of human activity) acts as a single object of various humanities with the diversity of their subject.

Considerable attention is paid to methodological problems: the source study criterion of comparative historical research is substantiated, interdisciplinary connections of source study are revealed. Source studies are viewed as an integrating discipline in the system of the humanities; shows various methodological approaches to solving the most significant problems, as well as the development of research methods for the main types of historical sources.

The review of the main types of sources of Russian history, given in the second part of the textbook, is universal in nature, since it reflects trends common to the source base of the history of different countries.

Part I. THEORY, HISTORY AND METHOD OF SOURCE STUDIES

Section 2. FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF SOURCE STUDIES (O.M. Medushevskaya)
(p1s2.pdf - 775K)

Section 3. METHOD OF SOURCE STUDIES AND INTERDISCIPLINARY ASPECTS (O.M. Medushevskaya)
(p1s3.pdf - 483K)

Part 2. SOURCES OF RUSSIAN HISTORY

Section 1. HISTORICAL SOURCES XI-XVII CENTURIES (I.N. Danilevsky)

Section 2. HISTORICAL SOURCES XVIII - BEGINNING XX CENTURY (M.F. Rumyantseva)

The textbook systematically presents source studies as a scientific discipline and a method of scientific knowledge. The concept of the textbook is based on the current status of source study as a rigorous science, understanding of the historical source as an objectified result of human activity / cultural product and the transformation of the source study object from a historical source through the species system of the corpus of historical sources to the empirical reality of the historical world. Special attention is paid to the worldview and epistemological foundations of source study, its theory and method. The fundamental novelty of the textbook is that for the first time, three components of modern source study are clearly separated. In the first section, source studies are presented as a scientific discipline and as a backbone of humanitarian knowledge. In the second section, source study is positioned as a method of obtaining new rigorous knowledge about a person and society in their historical perspective. In the third section, source study is considered as a tool for historical research.

For students enrolled in undergraduate and specialty programs, and undergraduates in the humanities, as well as for all those interested in the nature of historical knowledge and methods of obtaining it.

The work belongs to the genre History. Historical sciences. It was published in 2015 by the Higher School of Economics (HSE) publishing house. On our site you can download the book "Source Studies" in fb2, rtf, epub, pdf, txt format or read online. Here you can also, before reading, refer to the reviews of readers who are already familiar with the book, and find out their opinions. In the online store of our partner, you can buy and read a book in paper form.

Current page: 1 (total of the book has 62 pages) [available passage for reading: 41 pages]

Source studies

Introduction

What is source study

Source study (German Quellenkunde, English source study) is a humanitarian discipline, an object which are historical sources, that is, the entire totality of human works / cultural products is the empirical reality of the historical world, and item- the study of the historical source as a cultural phenomenon and on this basis the search, extraction, assessment and use in science and other social practices of information about a person and society in their historical component.

Source studies grew out of the practical need to establish the authenticity and reliability of documents. Scientific historical source studies have passed a difficult path of formation and development as a discipline of historical science. At each stage of this path, the functions of source study increased, its tasks became more complicated, and, most importantly, the status and place of source study in the system of scientific historical knowledge changed.

During the XX century. source study acquires the status of a scientific discipline. The current state of source study is determined by the transformation of modern science, distinguished by a strict disciplinary division, into a new type of knowledge, mainly of a humanitarian and synthetic nature. In the new socio-cultural and theoretical-cognitive situation, which has developed mainly in the last third of the XX - early XXI c., source study acts as an integrating principle of humanities, since its subject - a historical source, understood as a cultural phenomenon, as a product of the creativity of a person and society in a broad sense - acts simultaneously as an object of research in other humanities and social sciences. Modern source study is fundamentally polydisciplinary, it refers to the entire totality of cultural works in order to understand the Other (man, society, culture), expand on this basis the experience of one's own culture, and enrich the worldview.

Acting as an integrating principle of humanitarian knowledge, providing a universal method of referring to human works / cultural products for any humanities and social sciences, source studies at the same time maintains links with auxiliary historical disciplines, the formation and development of which was due to the need for a special study of certain aspects of historical sources ( for example, paleography examines the external signs of written monuments, historical chronology - the dating contained in them, metrology - the measures mentioned) or special groups of historical sources (sphragistics studies seals, heraldry - coats of arms, faleristics - insignia, awards, vexillology - banners) in order to establish authenticity, dating, attribution of historical sources.

Why does a person need source studies

Logically, it would be necessary to start with the answer to this question. For the question "Why?" very essential both in science and in life. A timely response to it often saves a lot of time and effort. But we couldn't talk about why study, before even having previously found out, what to study.

Based on a simple everyday thought and their own scientific and life experience, the authors advise you, before starting to study the discipline, if you do not answer the question “Why do I need this?”, Then at least find out why it can be useful to you.

However, in such a formulation of the question there is some slyness, since the answer to this question presupposes positioning oneself in relation to various communities. A person, by virtue of his social nature, always willy-nilly (consciously or unconsciously) correlates himself with some kind of society. Therefore, we transform the posed question as follows: "How does society demand source knowledge?"

Let us single out two components of interest in source study - universal / general cultural and scientific / professional as such. Each of them, in turn, can be divided into two levels.

General cultural component. At the first level of mastering source study, a useful ability is developed to evaluate information, including in everyday life situations, in order to make adequate decisions. But the second level is much more important - the development of the ability to understand a person of another culture, the Other - in a broad, philosophical sense, referring to the created by these Other things - the products of his work, the works of another culture, which act as historical sources in the system of historical knowledge. Thus, the source study approach can and should become the basis for a tolerant attitude towards the Other, which is an indispensable requirement of modern ethics.

Professional component. At the axiomatic level, it is clear that source study is the basis of the professionalism of a historian-researcher. However, here it is possible and necessary to single out two levels of mastering source study, although, at first glance, professionalism is a category that is either present or, alas, absent. But the modern scientific community, or rather scientific communities, is highly differentiated, including in terms of the level of professionalism. Therefore, at the first level, a historian, or rather a person with a diploma in history, must be able to construct historical facts through a rigorous scientific procedure - source analysis. To describe a higher level of professionalism, let us use the words of the Russian historian and methodologist Alexander Sergeevich Lappo-Danilevsky (1863-1919):

Anyone who strives for knowledge of historical reality draws his knowledge about it from sources (in the broad sense); but in order to establish the knowledge of which particular fact he can obtain from a given source, he must understand it: otherwise, he will not have sufficient reason to give his idea of a fact an objective meaning; not being sure what exactly he learns from a given source, he cannot be sure that he does not attribute to the source the product of his own fantasy. From this point of view, the historian, in essence, begins to study various types of sources: he tries to establish, for example, the remnants of which particular fact or the legend about which particular fact are contained in a given source, which becomes possible only with its proper understanding. 1
Lappo-Danilevsky A.S. Methodology of history: in 2 volumes.Moscow, 2010.Vol. 2.P. 64.

A professional historian should not only be able to obtain facts by "criticizing historical sources" (this concept, which is still loved by many historians, will be discussed later), but also understand the nature of the new knowledge gained and reflect on his own research process.

The principles of building a textbook and its structure

The vagueness of the terminology of historical / humanitarian knowledge forces us to define the concepts used. At the same time, the authors do not pretend to be the final definition of the introduced concepts, but only strive for terminological definiteness within the framework of this textbook.

The tutorial is based on two principles.

First: unity of history and theory. The current state of source study is, to a certain extent, the result of its history. The authors understand this very trivial statement not in a cumulative sense (as it often happens to this day in the history of science - this position is explained at the beginning of the first section of the textbook), but they focus on the fact that in modern source study there are components that were formed at different times, and we must learn to recognize them.

The most productive, in our opinion, is the comprehension of the history of source studies in relation to the classical, non-classical, post-non-classical and neoclassical types of rationality (and the corresponding models of science) developed in the philosophy of science. This is a difficult and non-trivial task, since the problems of the philosophy of science have been developed mainly in relation to physics and natural sciences.

Second: a clear separation of the three components of modern source study:

Source study as a scientific discipline and as a backbone of humanitarian knowledge;

Source study as a method of obtaining new rigorous knowledge about a person and society in their historical perspective;

Source study as one of the tools of historical research.

The synthesis of these two principles allows us to propose a concept of development and the current state of source study, the general scheme of which is fixed in the structure of the textbook, where a separate section is devoted to each of the components.

Source study as a component historical method is formed within the framework of the classical model of science, which assumes, as a result of studying (the so-called criticism) of a historical source, the receipt of a historical fact, which is used further in the practice of historical writing, being invariant with respect to them. Such a model has long ceased to correspond to modern epistemological and sociocultural realities. Therefore, this auxiliary function of source study, while remaining, is modified taking into account the requirements of non-classical, post-non-classical and neoclassical science. In particular, the place of "criticism" of historical sources in order to obtain the so-called reliable facts, verified through the correspondence of "objective reality" and understood as an invariant element ("brick") of historical construction, is taken by source analysis, in which the procedure of interpretation, the goal which is the understanding of the Other, that is, the author of a historical source. Since source analysis should be epistemologically based, it is considered in the third, final, section of the textbook, together with the issues of forming the source basis for research and methods of introducing historical sources into scientific circulation and social practices (archeography).

The acquisition of the status of a discipline by source study is primarily associated with the reflection of the object. At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. in the Russian version of neo-Kantianism, the problem of the historical source as a specific object of source study was posed. Starting from the understanding of the historical source as an objectified result of human activity, formed in the Russian version of neo-Kantianism, the researchers who developed this concept came to approve the system of types of historical sources presenting the corresponding culture as an object of source study. 2
This concept is fixed in our previous tutorial: Source Study: Theory. History. Method. Sources of Russian history: textbook. allowance. M., 1998 [reissued. 2000, 2004].

Substantiation of the concept of "empirical reality of the historical world" 3
O.M. Medushevskaya Theory and methodology of cognitive history. M., 2008.

As not only epistemological, but also, in fact, ontological, it allowed to consolidate the status of source study as an independent scientific discipline in the system of both historical and humanitarian knowledge as a whole. The concept of an object and the related classification problem are discussed in the first section of the tutorial.

The new understanding of the object of source study made it possible to constitute the study of species systems of historical sources as an independent method of studying various socio-cultural communities. The second section of the textbook contains approbation of the method and presents the system of types of sources of Russian history as a projection of Russian culture. Consideration of the corpus of sources of Russian history allows us to understand how the method of source study is used when working with specific material, how species methods are formed, taking into account the peculiarities of various historical sources. The study of the sources of Russian history gives the authors the opportunity to rely on the rich traditions and achievements of Russian source culture and teaching source study as a special discipline. At the same time, a historian studying the history of another country (culture, ethnic group, region, etc.) is provided with a developed model of approach to an integral set of historical sources. This section also contains comparative source studies as a method of comparative historical research and source study of historiography as an application of the method of source study to the study of the history of history (the history of historical knowledge and the history of historical science).

So, the general scheme of development of source study looks like this.

Classical model of science

The function of source study in historical knowledge is criticism of a historical source in order to obtain reliable facts understood as part of the reality of the past.

The purpose of the study in educational system vocational training historian - mastering the skill of a critical attitude to the information of a historical source in research practices.

Non-classical model of science

The function of source study in historical knowledge is a dialogue between the historian and the author of a historical source with the aim of interpreting its content on the basis of the principle of “recognizing someone else's animality” and understanding the mechanism of generating a historical source in a particular culture.

The purpose of the study is to identify the phenomenological nature of the historical source, to understand the constructive role of the cognizing subject in the context of understanding the mechanisms of cognition.

Post-non-classical model of science

The function of source study in historical knowledge - in the conditions of postmodern deconstructions, to propose a method of social construction of reality by the method of source study based on understanding the object of source study as a system of types of historical sources presenting a particular culture.

The purpose of the study is the construction of a historical whole based on the method of source study.

(However, we note that this part of the proposed construction is the most controversial. Here it is more likely to talk about intertextuality and, in part, opposition to this approach from the phenomenological source study concept of historical knowledge belonging to the neoclassical model of science.)

Neoclassical model of science

The function of source study in historical knowledge is the formation of the epistemological foundations of history as a rigorous science based on the understanding of its object - the empirical reality of the historical world as an ontological category.

The purpose of the study is to understand source studies as a cognitive science and to form strict standards of scientific character in historical knowledge based on the concept of "empirical reality of the historical world" as an ontological category.

We have left out of consideration the philosophical discussions about the relationship between post-nonclassical and neoclassical rationality. Let us fix our vision of the problem for further analysis: if the first three types of rationality replace each other, then neoclassical rationality is formed in parallel with non-classical rationality and is actualized in the conditions of the prevalence of post-non-classical rationality, being in a constant search for new epistemological foundations of strict scientific knowledge. That is why it does not replace postnonclassical rationality, but offers its own vision of scientific knowledge, in many respects opposing the postmodern epistemological anarchy.

It is obvious that the above logical structure of source studies, according to the principle of which the material of the textbook is organized, does not correspond to the historical sequence, that is, the sequence of the emergence of different components of the discipline. The reason for this, as already noted, is the need for theoretical founding at the level of actual scientific knowledge of both the application of the source study method in historical knowledge and the procedures of source analysis, which retain an instrumental character in research practice.

This structure of the textbook determines its fundamental novelty and compliance with the current understanding of the status of source studies in the system of scientific knowledge.

Keeping in mind the promise to clarify the concepts used, the authors should emphasize that they strictly distinguish between the concepts of "modern", that is, existing in the existing here and now historical knowledge, and "actual", that is, adequately meeting the needs of this knowledge and, accordingly, satisfying the needs of modern society.

Required advance notice

Before embarking on a systematic presentation of source study as a scientific discipline and as a backbone of humanitarian knowledge, the authors consider it necessary to make one notice, but address it only to those who intend to master source study at a high level of professionalism.

The reflective level of mastering knowledge - especially theoretical, and the theoretical component of source study is very significant - presupposes not only enrichment of memory, but also education, understood as the formation of a personality in the literal sense, that is, work on one's personality and in-depth self-reflection. The authors are extremely close to the formula of J.-P. Sartre: "To understand is to change, to surpass oneself ..."

If you are ready to change, then let's master and appropriate source studies together. If you are not ready, then let source study remain an assistant for you in satisfying your interest in history and give some food to your erudition.

Danilevsky Igor Nikolaevich (section 2, part 1, chapter 1); Dmitry Dobrovolsky (section 2, part 1, chapter 3); Kazakov Roman Borisovich (sources and literature); Malovichko Sergey Ivanovich (section 2, part 3; section 3, part 1, chapter 2); Rumyantseva Marina Fedorovna (introduction; section 1; section 2, part 1, chapter 2; section 2, part 2; section 3, part 1, chapters 1, 3; instead of conclusion); Khoruzhenko Oleg Igorevich (section 3, part 3), Shveikovskaya Elena Nikolaevna (section 2, part 1, chapter 1, paragraph 4).

Section one
Source studies as a discipline of historical science

Part i
History of source studies

Preamble. Two approaches to the history of science

Historians have traditionally taken an interest in the history of historical knowledge. Tribute to the work of predecessors is invariably given in historiographic analysis, which is an indispensable component of the introduction to any qualifying work. Other scientific research of historians begins with a consideration of the preceding historiography. At the end of the XIX century. historiography is formed, first as an auxiliary historical discipline, and then as an independent discipline of historical science. But what is the meaning of historiographic analysis? A detailed answer to this question clearly goes beyond the disciplinary framework of source study, so here we will only briefly clarify our position - we will determine the relationship between history and theory of source study.

The history of science, including source study, can be approached in two fundamentally different ways, radically different in goal-setting. One of them, still the most widespread, is based on a cumulative model of the development of science. Researchers who adhere to this model believe that science develops through the accumulation and refinement of knowledge; as science develops, our knowledge becomes more and more extensive and more accurate, that is, they more and more fully and accurately describe the so-called objective reality. This model presupposes an axiomatic belief in a) the existence of the so-called objective reality, that is, independent of the cognizing subject, and b) its cognizability as such. With this approach, the goal of studying the history of science is to show this path and present the current state of science as a result of its previous development.

This approach exhausted itself by the middle of the 20th century, when other ideas about the mechanism of transformations of scientific knowledge were established. The new cognitive situation was marked by the publication of the book by the American historian and philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn (1922–1996) "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions" (1962), which substantiates the paradigmatic nature of science. The main concept of the new approach is a paradigm, that is, a basic theory shared by the scientific community and serving as the basis for formulating research problems. The change of paradigms occurs in leaps and bounds, through scientific revolutions, and depends not so much on the "accumulation" of knowledge, but on unpredictable fundamental scientific discoveries and interaction with changes in sociocultural situations.

Sharing the idea of the paradigmatic nature of science and, accordingly, not accepting its cumulative model, the authors proceed from the fact that several sociocultural eras have changed since the first experiences of a critical attitude to historical sources in the early modern era. Consequently, it is appropriate and expedient to raise the question of the status and place of source study studies in each of them. This approach also makes it possible to detect elements inherited from earlier paradigms in modern (that is, existing in our time, but not always meeting the actual needs of science and social practice) source studies, and to reveal the degree of their adequacy to the actual sociocultural and theoretical-cognitive situations.

In the first part of this section, source study paradigms are indicated that correspond to different, replacing each other, types of rationality and models of science: classical, non-classical, post-non-classical and neoclassical. The selection of the analyzed historiographic material also corresponds to this goal, although, of course, the history of source study is much more diverse and richer than the scheme we propose.

When starting to consider the history of source study, it is important to clearly understand that it is a research construct. Source study as an independent discipline was formed only in the XX century. (and to the fullest extent - only in a specific Soviet context). Historians of the 18th – 19th centuries considered the issues of studying historical sources in connection with the study of history as such and most often cited source observations in the introductory part of their works, and also devoted special work to the study of individual monuments or groups of historical sources. At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. historians, who developed the problems of the nature of the historical source and methods of its study, did this in the context of the methodology of history, devoting a more or less significant place in its structure to the understanding of the nature of the historical source, issues of classification, criticism and interpretation of historical sources. Thus, we isolate the source study problematics from historical research and works on the methodology of history analytically, from the point of view of our research tasks. In the historical review, mainly methodological works are considered, since they concentrately represent the vision of historians of the problems of studying historical sources and generalize the experience of source research.

Source study Danilevsky boars medushevskaya. Danilevsky I.N., Kabanov V.V., Medushevskaya O.M., Rumyantseva M.F. Source study: Theory. History. Method. Sources of Russian history