Russian doctors and doctors of medicine. School and education in Russia in the 17th century Education of Russian doctors
Rice.: Home pharmacy with medical
office in Kitay-gorod.
18th century drawing
In old times in European medicine there was a strict specialization. Above all were university-educated doctors. They made a general diagnosis and treated internal diseases. Doctors were engaged in external diseases and surgical operations. Pharmacists selected and prepared medicines. The Russians, having become acquainted with this system, gave it an apt description: “ Dokhtur gives his advice and orders, but he himself is inexperienced; but the doctor applies and heals with medicine and is himself unscientific; and the pharmacist they both have a cook».
AT in turn, foreigners, coming to Russia, spoke disparagingly about the state of medicine among Muscovites. Thus, the Italian ambassadors who visited Moscow in the middle of the 16th century reported: “The Russians do not have philosophical, astrological and medical books, there are no doctors or pharmacists, but they treat from experience with tried and tested medicinal herbs.” In fact, foreigners meant by doctors people who had studied medical theory, familiarized themselves with the works of the classics of ancient and medieval medicine. There really were no such doctors in Russia at that time, since there were no educational institutions similar to Western universities. But practical medicine in Russia was at a fairly high level.
O Usually Russians preferred to be treated with home remedies. Foreigners were astonished by the most common method of Russian self-treatment: “Feeling unwell, they usually drink a good glass of wine, pouring a charge of gunpowder into it, or mixing the drink with crushed garlic, and immediately go to the bathhouse, where they sweat for two hours or more in the intolerable heat. three". If the disease did not recede, they turned to doctors. The profession of doctors - "lechtsy" - was passed down from generation to generation, from father to son. Healers specialized in various types of diseases and methods of their treatment: chiropractors, ore throwers, pomyasy, scaly, scaly, keel and full-time masters.
P According to the observations of foreigners, the common population did not believe foreign doctors and considered their pills "unclean". A much more hospitable reception was given to foreign doctors in the royal palace. Many European doctors were graciously received at the court of Ivan the Terrible. The scientist physician and mathematician Arnold Lindsay enjoyed special confidence. Prince Kurbsky jealously noted that Grozny “always showed great love for Lindsay, except for him, you won’t take medicine from anyone.” Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich considered the doctor almost a miracle worker. One day Grozny rashly killed one of his boyars, but then he repented and called Lindsay: "Heal my good servant, I played carelessly with him." But here even the famous doctor only threw up his hands.
H and in Russia, overseas doctors were taken for sorcerers, warlocks, able to ward off damage, to foresee the future. I must say that astrology really played an important role in Western medicine at that time. One of the doctors - Yelisey Bomelii - specially pretended to be a magician, using Grozny's superstition.
L the chronicler wrote: “The Germans sent a fierce Nemchin sorcerer called Elisha to the king, and to be loved by him and in the approximation.” On the instructions of the formidable king, Bomelius made poisons, from which later the boyars suspected of treason died in terrible agony at royal feasts. In the end, the king himself was frightened by the machinations of his court sorcerer, and, to the considerable joy of the people, Bomelius was subjected to a cruel execution - he was burned alive.
AT At the end of his reign, Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich nevertheless approached the organization of medical practice seriously. By royal decree, the Pharmaceutical Order was formed - a special department that dealt primarily with the health of the autocrat himself and his family. Initially, the Aptekarsky Prikaz was located in the Kremlin, in a stone building opposite the Chudsky Monastery, and the palace pharmacy was also located here. On the territory of the Kremlin between the Borovitsky and Troitsky gates, the Aptekarsky garden was arranged, where medicinal plants were grown.
And From England, a whole group of experienced specialists was discharged to work in the new order - doctors, surgeons, pharmacists. The head of the Aptekarsky order - the pharmacy boyar - played an important role at the royal court, because he was in charge of "warning the great sovereigns of health", protecting the royal family from evil spells and "dashing potion" (poison). Boris Godunov, the de facto ruler of the country under the infirm Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich, in addition to other important state affairs, personally supervised the Pharmaceutical Order.
To When Boris Godunov himself became tsar, he increased the staff of the Pharmaceutical Order and recruited a large number of foreign specialists. Godunov decided to give a higher medical education to the Russian people. A group of young nobles was first sent to study in Western Europe. Unfortunately, because of the Troubles, these first students never returned to their homeland.
C Arsk pharmacy already had a significant amount of medicines. When in the spring of 1605 an epidemic of dysentery broke out in the troops sent against the impostor False Dmitry, Boris Godunov "sent all kinds of drink and all kinds of potions that are suitable for diseases, and therefore give them great help."
P After the death of Godunov, an uprising broke out in Moscow. Rumors spread among the crowd that foreign healers received untold riches from Godunov and filled their cellars with all sorts of wines. Medicines at that time were indeed made, as a rule, on the basis of alcohol. The property of pharmacists was plundered, and stocks of medicinal alcohol tinctures were completely devastated. As a result, as eyewitnesses reported, after the riot, fifty people were poisoned to death and the same number were damaged in the mind from drinking.
BUT The ptekarsky order was revived only after the Time of Troubles in 1620. Now it has become not a court, but a nationwide institution, designed to provide medical assistance to "all kinds of people." New tasks required the expansion of the staff of doctors, healers and pharmacists. The vast majority of specialists were, as before, foreigners. The Russian authorities sought to train their own doctors for the country. But so far, although natives of Russia have been sent abroad, they are not native Russians, but the children of foreign specialists.
W and the account of the Russian treasury was sent to the University of Leiden "for teaching doctoral science" Valentin Bils, the son of the personal physician of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich. Bils Jr. returned to Russia and joined the Aptekarsky Prikaz, although he was later expelled "for little art." Two sons of another foreign doctor, Arthur Diya, were sent at the state expense "to teach dokhturstvo abroad" at the expense of the state. The son of the translator of the Ambassadorial order, Johann Elmston, received his medical education at Cambridge.
P The first Russian doctor of medicine appeared only at the end of the 17th century. They became a graduate of the Moscow Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy Pyotr Postnikov. He brilliantly graduated from the University of Padua in Italy, traveled to the leading scientific centers of Europe for "greater progress in medicine." Postnikov became seriously interested in research and already wanted to go to Naples, where experiments were carried out on animals. However, this was banned. “You went to Naples, as it is written in your letter, to kill live dogs and live dead ones,” the embassy clerk wrote to Postnikov. “We don’t really need this.”
E If the highest positions of doctors in the 17th century were occupied by foreigners, then the lower medical personnel were replenished with Russians. In 1654, under the Aptekarsky Prikaz, the first medical school in Russia was opened, which trained doctors and pharmacists. The training was mainly theoretical, only in the last fifth year of study the students worked as assistants to doctors. The school had a military-medical direction, its graduates were distributed among the archery regiments for "healing military wounded people" - there was a difficult Russian-Polish war for the liberation of Ukraine.
AT the growing Pharmaceutical Order was already cramped in the Kremlin. In 1657, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich ordered: “The Sovereign's Pharmaceutical Yard and the vegetable garden should be moved from the Kremlin beyond the Butcher's Gate and arranged in a garden settlement in empty places.” In 1672, by decree of Alexei Mikhailovich, a new public pharmacy was opened near the shopping malls near Red Square, where it was necessary to “sell vodka and spirits and all kinds of medicines of all ranks to people.” Only pharmacists were allowed to trade in medicines, all others were warned that they, under the threat of punishment, “did not keep or sell pharmaceutical medicines in the ranks of the mosquito, vegetable, and green”.
AT All drugs were dispensed by prescription with the obligatory seal of the doctor who prescribed them. Medicines were expensive and sold poorly, although even European diplomats noted the good quality of medicines sold in Moscow. The main income of the Moscow pharmacy was given by the tavern kept at it. Healing alcohol tinctures sold there were by no means always bought for medicinal purposes.
H Some medicines - opium, camphor, quinine - were delivered to Russia from abroad. Other medicines were made on the spot, making extensive use of the rich experience accumulated by Russian folk medicine. In the 17th century, several apothecary gardens and vegetable gardens already existed in Moscow - at the Butcher's Gate, at the Stone Bridge, in the German Sloboda and other places. In addition to medicinal plants, apiaries were arranged there. Honey was considered the most important medicine. The search for medicinal plants in the vicinity of Moscow was part of the practice of students of the medical school.
BUT The ptekarsky order found out the places of growth of rare medicinal plants throughout the country, the "herbalists" sent there ensured the collection, storage and delivery of plants to Moscow at the right time. In some places, the peasants were entrusted with a special "berry duty" - to procure medicinal plants. St. John's wort, Chernobyl, valerian, bear's ear, wild buckwheat and strawberries, juniper berries, malt root were brought to the capital. In Moscow pharmacies, in the manufacture of medicines, plants, honey, bear and even crow fat, various metals and minerals were mixed.
P Under Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich, during the war with Turkey, Moscow was flooded with wounded warriors. The Pharmaceutical Order had to urgently set up a “tent for a doctor’s seat to examine the sick” - this is how an outpatient clinic was born in Russia. For the heavy and "homeless" wounded in the Ryazan, Vologda and Kazan courtyards, for the first time, large temporary hospitals were set up.
AT In 1682, Fedor Alekseevich issued a decree on the establishment of permanent hospitals (“spitals”) in Moscow - at the Pomegranate Yard, at the Nikitsky Gate and in the Znamensky Monastery. Under the "spitals" it was supposed to organize a special pharmacy, where "drugs can be kept inexpensively, but the benefits will be repaired." Hospitals were to become centers of practical medical training. The royal decree read: “It is possible to treat the sick and the crippled, and this work is of considerable benefit to young doctors, and sophistication in its science, and soon the teaching and art of each doctor in the treatment will be known.”
R The early death of Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich did not allow the implementation of his decree on the creation of the first civilian hospitals in Moscow. It was already Pyotr Alekseevich who had to bring Russian medicine to a qualitatively new level. The young king found a serious disorder in the medical field. Inside the Pharmaceutical Order between doctors and healers, instead of good agreement, “enmity, quarrel, slander and dislike” reigned ... Junior ranks showed “disobedience” to doctors, and in deeds - “negligence”.
H The real reason for the conflict in the Pharmaceutical Order was the contradiction between two trends in medicine - the highly learned theory of foreign doctors and the practice of Russian doctors. Russian doctors - healers and pharmacists - were not going to tolerate doctoral superiors over themselves. In addition, doctors who worked sleeplessly next to the sick, assisting the wounded on the battlefield, received salaries many times less than foreign specialists, who often wrote out prescriptions without seeing the patient in the face.
AT The most important merit of Peter I in the development of medical practice in Russia is that he finally managed to combine Western medical theory with the practice of Russian medical practice, to combine in one qualified doctor the obsolete medieval specializations - doctors, doctors and pharmacists (therapist, surgeon and pharmacologist).
M Medicine was one of the hobbies of Tsar Peter I, perhaps the most unpleasant for his entourage. Peter constantly carried with him two sets of instruments - measuring and surgical. Considering himself an experienced surgeon, the king was glad to come to the rescue, noticing someone had some kind of ailment. By the end of his life, Peter had accumulated a whole bag of teeth he had personally pulled out.
G Most importantly, Peter I saw modern effective medicine as an indispensable attribute of a civilized advanced state. In 1701, a decree was issued allowing anyone, Russian and foreigner, to open a free pharmacy. Soon, eight new pharmacies appeared in Moscow. However, the government pharmacy remained the main one, which received a new building at the Resurrection Gate of Kitay-Gorod (on the site of the current Historical Museum).
P according to the description of contemporaries, the pharmacy was "a beautiful building, high, with a beautiful tower on the front side." The pharmacy had a pantry of medicinal herbs, a pharmacy laboratory, scientific Library. Foreigners admitted that the main Moscow pharmacy "can be considered one of the best pharmacies in the world, both in terms of the vastness of the rooms, and in terms of the variety of drugs, the order that reigns in it and the elegance of jugs for medicines." The pharmacy building also housed the Medical Office, which replaced the Apothecary Order.
AT In 1706, by decree of Peter I, in Moscow, behind the Yauza, opposite the German settlement, a “hospital for the treatment of sick people” was founded. Initially, the hospital was located in several wooden two-story outbuildings with svetlitsy, surrounded by a garden with medicinal plants. In addition to its direct task, the hospital served as an educational institution, in which for the first time not learned doctors and not artisan healers were trained, but doctors who were equally competent in both theoretical and practical matters.
At in 1707, a medical-surgical school of the European level began to operate at the Moscow hospital. The study was conducted in Latin, since the students had to complete a full university course. The first students of the hospital school were graduates of the Moscow Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. The training was led by the personal physician of Peter I, Nikolai Bidloo, who abandoned schoolboy cramming in favor of training directly at the patient's bedside. The program of the Moscow Hospital School was in no way inferior, and in the practical part it was superior to the then programs of the medical faculties of Western universities.
AT 1712 the first graduation of the Moscow hospital school took place. Foreign doctors were wary of their Russian colleagues, offering to consider them mere doctors. Peter I imposed his resolution on this: “So that none of the foreign dokhtors have any offense in honor or in raising the rank Russian people from him to the studied surgeons did not dare to show!
D. Nikitin, candidate historical sciences na-warshavke.narod.ru
And in 1654, under the Pharmaceutical Order, the first special educational institution was opened - the "School of Russian Doctors", the first set consisted of 30 students. The term of study at school was set to 5-7 years. The study of the first set of students lasted four years. In view of the great need for regimental doctors in 1658, early graduation took place. 17 doctors were sent to the active army, the rest -
in the Streltsy order for service. At the same time, the system of apprenticeship continued to exist for teaching the medicinal art. Students of medicine and pharmacy were sent to experienced doctors and pharmacists to gain medical knowledge and medical skills.
It is also impossible to overestimate the role of translators who arrived in Russia. Thanks to their knowledge of the Russian language, they had the opportunity to acquaint the Russian reader with various treatises, translating them into Russian. There is especially a lot of evidence of such translations from the 17th century. Here we can also name the translators of the Ambassadorial order of Gozvinsky, who have already mentioned us, who left us such translated works as Aesop's fables, "Tropnik or a small way to the salvation of Pope Innocent" (1609) and N.G. Spafarius, who translated "The Book of the Temple and Sacred Mysteries" by Simeon of Thessalonius, "Chrysmologion" and others.
Thanks to the efforts of these people, foreign books were widely distributed in Russia in the 17th century. This is evidenced by the calculations of B.V. Sapunova. He, having analyzed 17 inventories of personal libraries, 10 - monastic and 66 - church, indicates the following figures. Out of 3410 books, 1377 (40%) came from abroad to personal libraries, out of 6387 - 770 (12%) in monastic collections were of foreign origin, in church libraries 1462 books - 47 (3%) - were of foreign origin. In total, according to A.I. Sobolevsky, in Moscow Russia for the period of the XV - XVII centuries. 129 different foreign works. Meanwhile, this number is somewhat underestimated. So, in the list compiled by A.I. Sobolevsky, some works that are now known to us in the lists of the 17th century were not included: Bauner's "Essay on Artillery" (1685), Fonkuhorn's "New Fortress Buildings", "Mars' Cases or Military Art" (1696) and some other. As you can see, all of the examples listed belong to the 17th century. But there is every reason to say that foreigners, including employees of various orders, were engaged in translation activities before. So, for example, in the inventory of the royal archive of the middle of the XVI century. mention is made of translations from the Polsky Chronicler and Cosmographia, stored in box No. 217. In addition, some translated works in the lists of the 16th century have survived to this day. So, for example, we know the so-called "Trojan story" by Guido de Columna in the list of the XVI century. The authorship of these works has not been determined. But the place of storage (in the first case) and the subject matter of the works (in the first and second cases) allow us to assume that the origin of these translations is connected with the activities of the translators of the Posolsky Prikaz. Naturally, this assumption cannot be considered an absolute truth, therefore, in the future, it is necessary to carefully study the authorship of translated works in order to clarify all the sources of the formation of knowledge of Russian people in the 16th century. AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
Let's pay attention to the next point. Most foreigners are translators foreign literature were in the Russian service in various orders. According to the estimates of G. Kotoshikhin, in the Moscow state there were 50 translators (translating written documents) and 70 interpreters (translating oral speech). The staff of the Ambassadorial Prikaz included translators from “Latin, Sveisky, German, Greek, Polish, Tatar”. For the most part, these were foreigners (for example, G. Staden, as follows from his autobiographical notes, was originally taken to the Posolsky Prikaz as a translator). Translators, according to the income and expense books, were also in the Aptekarsky order. So, in 1644, among the doctors, pharmacists, clerks, clerks of the Pharmaceutical Order, translators Vasily Alexandrov and Matvey Yelisteev are also mentioned. Basically, translators from Latin gathered here, which was due to the fact that in Europe it was Latin that was required to train a doctor.
We find confirmation of this data in the studies of some historians. So, V.O. Klyuchevsky, comparing two treaties on February 4 and August 17, 1610, according to which the throne was offered to Prince Vladislav, among other differences, emphasizes that if the first of them contained the condition “each of the Muscovite people for science is free to travel to other Christian states”, then in the second - this condition disappears. He sees the reason for this difference in the composition of the embassies that proposed one or another version of the agreement: if the first was mainly representatives of the “nobility and deacon”, then the second was the “higher boyars”. The striving to acquire knowledge in the West by certain commanding officers is also visible in the following fact. As soon as Peter I began to send Russian young people to Europe, Ivan Mikhailovich Volkov (from May 30, 1677 a clerk, and from 1684 to 1717 a clerk of the Ambassadorial order), together with other employees of the Ambassadorial order, sent three of his sons abroad at once. The same desire can be noted in the verses of the so-called command school. Savvaty, the clerk of the Printed Order, wrote in his poetic instruction to his student:
It is fitting for you to love the teaching, Like a sweet river to drink, Because the teaching is good and commendable for everyone, If you receive it in young noctech.
The same idea is emphasized in the poetic "Domostroy" and Karion Istomin. According to the memoirs of De la Neuville, V.V. Golitsyn drafted a program to improve the state and military service, in which not least were plans to force the nobility to get an education in the West. All these data allow us to say that individual clerks thought in a new way, and many of them made a lot of efforts to spread new ideas about education in Russian society.
Let's give some specific examples. IN. Klyuchevsky points out that "usually the princes were taught by the clerks of the Ambassadorial order." In addition, they bought foreign books: for example, by order of A.L. Ordin-Nashchekin in 1669, he was sent 82 Latin books; wrote essays: clerk Griboedov writes “History, that is, a story about piously ruling and holyly living divinely crowned tsars and grand dukes who are faithfully ruling in the Russian land ...”, under A.S. Matveev (1672-1675) books are being written on world history"Vassiliologion" and other books on domestic and foreign history, the authors of which were, as mentioned above, Nikolai Spafariy and Pyotr Dolgovo, the gold painter M. Kvachevsky; organized schools: F.M. Rtishchev, at his own expense, summoned "up to 30 learned monks" who were supposed to translate foreign books into Russian and teach those who wished Greek, Latin and Slavic grammar, rhetoric, philosophy and "other verbal sciences." “This is how it came about,” concludes V.O. Klyuchevsky, - in Moscow there is an academic fraternity, a kind of free academy of sciences.
Ryabikov Oleg Evgenievich was born on September 7, 1965 in the oldest city Russia, the city of Derbent, which has a history of development recorded in the chronicles for more than 5,000 years. He was brought up by his grandfather and grandmother, after whose death at the age of 11 he was transported by his parents to Bashkiria, where he graduated from both school and medical school. The first massage was done at the age of 8, with his feet, to a neighbor at the request of his grandmother after the death of his grandfather, when he received praise and 300 grams of the "golden key" decided to become a doctor. The final decision to treat people came during a serious illness of the grandmother and the realization of her own impotence and the inability to help her. For the first time, a doctor was “called” on the island of Kunashir in 1986 during the provision of emergency assistance in a helicopter crash. He went through the primary school of massage on about. Shikotan, from the good doctor Sergeev, at the same time received the first bathing skills on about. Tanfilyev at the senior warrant officer at the border outpost. I decided to become a massage therapist during rehabilitation after being wounded in the central hospital of the Navy in Vladivostok, having experienced its healing and restorative capabilities. He began professional massage training in 1987 on the basis of the Kislovodsk Medical School, and continues further self-education to this day.
... An oak broom, Master of the Forest, is complex with Good and put into my hand. With a broom and heat, I skilfully go around the body so that it sweats, but it doesn’t hurt in life, I’ll cover it with fire, I’ll douse it with water, I’ll attach sheets to the body, I’ll tell the order that the body should be young, healthy, and always ready for a good bath ...
Seven brooms of the Doctor
I owe the birth of the integrated technology "7 brooms" to the old method of bathing craft, called "many-armed bath attendant". The technique was seen and tested in the Urals bath.
Just as there are masters in Russia of the craft of bathing, so are the techniques of soaring. Each broom lies down differently in different hands and walks differently. If a simple chess is a bathhouse, then every master, and if a LAD chess is needed in a bathhouse, then such a master is rare, you will not find it in every volost ... ..
(County doctor Sava. Paramedic of the 1st rank.)
Step 1.
Warming up
Gradual, preliminary heating and initial mechanical influences, having a conscious direction, reduce the tension of tissues of any localization, of any origin. The body "refuses" tension, trembling, tissue immobility, a feeling of relaxation appears and this entails the need for further actions, in-depth mechanical action, additional stretching of muscles, ligaments, joints.
The comfort of the procedure is provided precisely by slow, gradual heating, with a suppressed stage of spasticity and a pronounced phase of vasodilation. A person feels a “blissful” penetrating warmth. An external sign of vasodilation (correct reaction) is skin hyperemia (redness), the pulse increases, blood pressure decreases! (there is a redistribution of blood). It is this reaction that we need, it is our desire that brings the greatest benefit to the body. We increase metabolism and accelerate blood flow.
Tasks of the preparatory stage:
A. Opening the pores and getting the primary effusion.
B. Starting increase in blood and lymph flow.
B. Preparatory activation of the respiratory and cardiovascular systems.
There are a large number of types of performance, we will consider the “week” technique (seven).
Attributes:
- 7 brooms (prepared using the "light broom" technology);
- grass hat;
- the use of 3 fir brooms;
- herbal decoction 500-600 ml.
All movements are performed from a light touch to the removal of the broom 15-20 cm from the body. The guest sits on a shelf on two brooms laid with handles to the sides. Hands on knees. Legs in a hot herbal decoction on a broom bed, covered with a broom.
- Steamer facing the guest, gripping the broom with an “open” hand. After 7-fold circumferential air mixing arms overhead.
- HOT RAIN: Brooms are dipped in herbal decoction and gently shaken on the guest's body with light touches, from top to bottom 7 times, as if compressing the air around the body.
- STRENGTHENING THE SPIRIT (INCREASED HEAT): 7 points of attention, 7 points of fixation 7 times. (shoulders, liver, kidneys, knees) when performing this technique, the broom produces an exciting Roundabout Circulation forcing heated air deep into, followed by pressing the hot broom to the fixation points.
- GLOW (OR DISTRIBUTION OF LIGHT): Sliding down and up along the lateral and anterior-posterior surfaces of the body 7 times.
- CREPE OF THE SPINE (STRENGTHENING THE SPINE): 7 movements from the sacrum to the neck, 7 approaches of the broom horizontal and 7 vertical with a light massage - stroking with brooms along and across to the sides of the spine. With light pats and short compresses.
- GLOW (WITH RUNNING AND FIXING): When feeling incomplete, it is possible to carry out a powerful hot air blowing technique, brooms capture hot air and blow it into a certain place in us (stomach, shoulder joints, kidneys, hip joints, groin, knees).
- BALANCING: The steamer, by the handles of the brooms on which the guest is sitting, performs counter-oscillatory movements of small amplitude, balancing and restoring the myofascial structures of the body.
- IRRIGATION and GRINDING: Produced by herbal infusion (decoction or steam).
Step 2
Pilling swaddling (prolonged peeling) is performed outside the steam room (massage treatment room, dressing room).
On the desktop, linen cloth soaked in herbal infusion or a plastic sheet for wrapping, brooms laid out on top. One can talk endlessly about the impact of herbal swaddling-wraps, since the procedure has no analogues in terms of the strength and depth of the impact of oils and herbal compositions applied to a preheated body with cleansed effusion pores.
Laying brooms:
- One under the head;
- Two in the lumbar region;
- Two in the shin area.
The steamer performs active rubbing with a pre-prepared herbal composition.
The selection of the composition for rubbing, cleansing, nutrition and toning is selected taking into account:
- DOSH (use warm or cold properties of plants and oils);
- Conditions of the client's skin and health (taking into account the moisturizing, relaxing or tonic properties of the products used);
- The wishes of the guest (the individual characteristics of the client's body, the ability to tolerate heat, the pain threshold of sensitivity are taken into account.);
- Set goals and objectives;
- Subjects of the provided procedure: detox, relaxation, anti-stress.
Rubbing, peeling and applying the composition are carried out according to the scheme:
- back (taking into account the massage lines recommended by the school of Russian classical massage);
- legs (from thigh to foot) (according to the principle of drainage technologies);
- arms (shoulders to hands).
The active tool is a broom and a steamer's hand. We use only longitudinal slides of the broom to avoid causing injury to the skin.
After turning the guest on his back, we use the scheme: chest, stomach, legs (along the massage lines of a classic massage). Before swaddling, we lay one of the brooms on the chest, the other on the stomach with the handles to each other. The duration of the wrap is 20-25 minutes.
During the wrapping, it is possible to carry out massage actions on the scalp and face. Auriculo-massage is shown, and soft techniques for releasing C0-C1.
Step 3
"Soaring" is carried out in a steam room. To be carried out without preliminary rinsing of the guest's body after swaddling.
Under the action of the bath heat, the vessels expand (the lumen almost doubles), respectively, blood circulation is accelerated. Well-heated blood rushes to the skin, irrigates it and nourishes it (about 40% of reserve blood comes to the skin). Such an outflow of blood to the periphery facilitates the work of the heart, training the cardiovascular system, lowers blood pressure, the minute volume of the heart increases up to 150%, and the pulse up to 120-140 beats per minute.
Chills often occur during the procedure. This is not a pathological, but a completely normal reaction, the blood heats up, heats up the internal organs, the body turns on the third line of reflexes, through the nerve endings of the blood vessels of the brain.
Soaring is carried out "over swaddling", i.e. the composition used for peeling swaddling is not washed off, but additionally “riveted” into the body, enhancing its activity by increasing the temperature regime and physical influences.
Laying brooms:
- Two brooms "wrap" the head: one under the head, the second on the head.
- Three brooms under the lumbosacral region: the first broom under the sacrum, handle down, two brooms under the buttocks, handles to the sides.
- Two “active” brooms are in the hands of the steamer.
Starting position of the guest: lying on his back. We process all parts of the body with brooms. We use the classic methods of soaring - stroking, pulling, poultice patting with stretching. We focus on the soaring on the stomach: in the liver area. Next, we move on to the technique of special soaring:
"7 swoops"
The essence of the technique is in segmenting the body into conditional zones and quadrants in compliance with the main points of thermal fixation. The steamer makes 6 active movements with brooms, and on the seventh movement he makes a short-term compress on the fixation point.
Before turning the guest on his stomach, the steamer balances the pelvis by the handles of the brooms using separation techniques on myofascial structures.
After we turn the guest on his stomach.
Laying brooms:
- Two brooms on the head (thermal protective function);
- Two brooms under the stomach (balance-calming);
- One broom on the crotch (thermal protection).
We carry out the methods of classical soaring or LAD soaring (bath chess) by heating according to the scheme - from the right leg to the left shoulder, from the left leg to the right shoulder. Emphasizing hovering on the feet, calf muscles and spine.
At the end of warming up, it is necessary to cool the back of the head, hands and feet of the guest with herbal infusion or water, then help him sit down and slowly take him out of the steam room.
Step 4
Recovery. It is performed outside the steam room.
An oil composition is applied to the body of the guest after a preliminary, warm or cool dip (depending on the severity of the dosha and well-being). As a general continuation and enhancement of the effect of herbal peeling swaddling, the composition is determined before the procedure, taking into account the individual characteristics of the guest's body, skin type and tasks.
The guest chooses the position for rest. The position should be convenient for relaxation and proper rest of the guest and the work of the bather.
In the classic version of the technique, "spiky felt boots" are put on the guest's feet. Hay is placed in felt boots and put on your feet for 15-20 minutes. The legs are preliminarily rubbed with an oil-turpentine-kerosene mixture.
The spa offers foot massage. Massage can have several options, but Asian foot reflex massage techniques remain preferred. Before the start of the massage, the guest is invited to drink 100-150 ml of hot drink. Classic teas, sbitni or freshly prepared broths can be used, taking into account the direction of the program, the tastes of the client and certain indications.
Step 5
In a steam room.
main part of the procedure. This step is aimed at working with muscles, deep ligaments and joints, the techniques and manipulations used are performed on deeply heated and relaxed tissues, which makes them atraumatic, and a phased effect on tissues allows you to achieve the greatest healing and healing effect.
Starting position of the guest: lying on his stomach.
Laying brooms:
- two under the belly in its upper part, handles to the sides;
- two under the lower third of the thigh;
- one broom, from among those active in applying the herbal composition, under the head.
Technique.
Trituration. Active stroking and rubbing with brooms from the feet to the neck, along the median lines up and down the lateral surfaces of the body. Warming up the brooms in the upper layers of the steam room, the steamer applies the brooms to the fixation points with an overlap and a press.
Fixation points:
- sacroiliac joints and buttocks;
- area of the kidneys;
- region of the lower part of the chest;
- area of the descending portion of the trapezius muscle;
- ears.
Also, at this stage, stretching-stretching is carried out. Manipulations are carried out step by step on the fascia, muscles and joints. The number of manipulations depends on the experience of the master, the fitness of the guest, the need for use and the temperature regime of the steam room. Harmonization or balancing is carried out in stages, by the handles of the laid brooms, without changing the vector and without shifting the broom, according to the principle of myo-fascial separation techniques.
After turning the guest on his back, we perform an activation-compress on the area:
- lap;
- stomach at three points: the middle between the umbilical ring and the womb, the umbilical ring, the middle between the umbilical ring and the xiphoid process;
- the region of the pectoralis major muscle and shoulder joint;
- face and ears.
At the turn of the 15th - 16th centuries on the territory of Russia came new stage in history - the Muscovite state was formed, headed by the Grand Duke and the Boyar Duma. In 1547 Grand Duke John IV was proclaimed "Tsar of All Russia". The capital of the new state was Moscow, which played a big role in the unification of the Russian lands and the liberation of our people from foreigners.
Since then, great responsibility has fallen on Moscow in the matter of maintaining the health of the new state. It was necessary to train their national cadres of doctors. And in 1654 the "School of Russian doctors" was opened. In this school, children of archers, clergy and service people were trained in medical art for 5-7 years at the expense of the state. 30 students were accepted in the year the school was opened. The study lasted four years. There were a lot of people who wanted to come here. Unlike modern competitions in medical schools the problem of admission to the "School of Russian doctors" was resolved by the tsar's resolution on a petition (or on a statement): "He should study medicine."
Preference was given to people who had gone through the harsh school of war and were familiar with practical medicine. This had to be indicated in the petition. Many such statements have survived to this day. Here is one of them - from Ivan Semenov: "... we were sitting in a trench ... dying of starvation ... military people were treated ... with any wound and worked penniless and did not receive any self-interest." Ivan was rewarded for his patience and diligence. The resolution, written in the royal hand, read: “Ivashka Semyonov to be in pharmacy students ...”
The living conditions of medical and apothecary students are also known from their petitions. “The tsar is beaten with a brow by your serfs, students of medicine ... thirty-eight people. We live, your serfs, in various orders in the streltsy settlements, but there are no courtyards of our own ... but now we, your lackeys, are being knocked out of the streltsy settlements, and we have nowhere to have a child. The tsar's resolution - "It is not ordered to expel until the sovereign decree" - saved the homeless students.
However, the development of professional medicine began much earlier.
Already during the reign of John III, who overthrew the Mongol-Tatar yoke, we met with professional doctors, mostly foreign ones. The formation of professional medicine in Russia is largely due to foreign doctors. This, of course, is connected with the expansion of Russia's foreign policy ties. The marriage of John III to the Greek princess Sophia Paleologus contributed, apart from other mutual influences, to the arrival of foreign doctors in Moscow.
Let's remember history. Twenty years before this event, the Byzantine Empire had fallen. Naturally, many Byzantine physicians emigrated to different countries, so that Moscow, after Constantinople intermarried with it, became their salvation. From the annals we learn that there were doctors in the retinue of Sophia Paleolog (the fate of one of them was described in the novel by I.I. Lazhechnikov “Basurman”). The same chronicles brought us the names of these doctors - Anton Nemchin, Leon Zhidovin. Anton Nemchina was the personal physician of John III, who greatly appreciated the doctor, but this did not save the doctor from a very sad fate. When the Tatar prince Karakach, who was in Moscow, fell ill, the Byzantine doctor Anton was ordered to treat him. The treatment was unsuccessful, the prince died. Anton was “given away” to the son of the deceased, who ordered to take the doctor to the Moscow River and slaughter “like a sheep” under the bridge.
The fate of another doctor, Leon Zhidovin, was also tragic. “In 1490, the Manuil children (Sophia’s brother Paleologus Andrei and nephews) brought with them to the Grand Duke the healer master Leon Zhidovin from Venice and other masters.” When the son of John III, John Ioannovich, fell ill with “an ache in his legs”, Leon was ordered to treat him. “And when his healer began to heal the potion, drink and give him, beginning life with glass on the body, pouring hot water, and from that it was more difficult for him to die.” The massacre of John III with the doctor was also short: he was put in prison, and after forty days from the death of the prince, they were taken to Bolvanovka and cut off his head.
After this unsuccessful experience with foreign doctors, all news about them is interrupted for some time. One can only speculate: was faith in their knowledge lost in Russia, or simply there were no people willing to risk their lives. The second, in our opinion, is more likely. It is known that after the execution of Leon, it was entrusted to the ambassadors “King Maximilian of Rome, Yuri Trachiniot the Greek and Vasily Kuleshin” to ask that “the king send a kind doctor who would be led to internal diseases, to wounds.” The request, however, remained unanswered.
Later, under the son and successor of John III, Grand Duke Vasily Ioannovich, who continued to recruit foreigners, we again learn about the arrival of foreign doctors in Moscow. One of them is Theophilus, a subject of the Prussian margrave, who was taken prisoner in Lithuania. The doctor was repeatedly demanded to be returned to his homeland, to which Grand Duke answered with an evasive refusal: Theophilus has many boyar children in his arms - he treats them, besides, he married Moscow. Grand Duke Vasily Ioannovich refused and Turkish sultan to his request to return another doctor - the Greek Marco.
The third doctor of this period, who enjoyed the special confidence of the Grand Duke Vasily, was Nikolai Luev (Nikolo). It is known that Theophilus and Nikolo were at the bedside of the dying Vasily Ioannovich. The chronicle tells about this event as follows: “A small sore appeared on the left country on a whip on the fold the size of a pin head.” The disease process began to develop rapidly. After a few days, the prince could not get up. The last words of the dying prince were addressed to the doctor Nikolai: “Tell the truth, can you cure me?” The answer was direct and honest: "I am unable to raise the dead." The dying man turned to those around him with the words: "It's all over: Nikolai pronounced a death sentence on me." Now we can only assume the diagnosis of the prince: whether it is a malignant neoplasm, phlegmon, or something else. But what faith in the power of medical art is revealed to us in this scene at the bedside of the dying prince...
The development in the 16th century of Russian maritime trade with England through the port of Arkhangelsk gave impetus to the influx of English doctors. So, among the 123 foreigners recruited in 1534 for the Russian service by Hans Slette sent abroad for this purpose, 4 doctors, 4 pharmacists, 2 operators, 8 barbers, 8 assistant doctors were recruited. In 1557, the ambassador of the English Queen Mary and her husband Philip presented the "dokhtur of Standish" as a gift to the palace of John IV. Unfortunately, we do not know about the further fate of this “dokhtur”. But the fate of another personal doctor of Ivan the Terrible, Elisha Bomelius (from Belgium), is well known to us. The Belgian left a sad memory of himself in the gloomy annals of the era. This “dokhtur”, “fierce sorcerer and heretic”, supported fear and suspicion in the suspicious king, predicted riots and rebellions, acted as a poisoner of persons objectionable to John. Subsequently, Elisha Bomelia was burned at the behest of John IV for political intrigues (for connection with Stefan Batory).
Arnold Lenzey from Italy was also the personal doctor of Ivan the Terrible. He enjoyed great confidence in the king, who took medicine from his hands (this is with a constant fear of poisoning), gave advice to the sovereign on many political matters. After the doctor's death, John expressed a desire to have a doctor from Europe, namely from England. With this request, the king turns to the English Queen Elizabeth. This request was due to a number of reasons. Tormented by the ghosts of boyar sedition, John, as you know, seriously thought about his shelter in England; later, in last years of his life, the Muscovite tsar wooed Lady Hastings, a princess of English royal blood.
The opening of a free northern passage to Russia in 1553 also contributed to the attraction of English doctors. The English Queen Elizabeth quickly responded to the request of the Moscow Tsar: “You need a scientific and industrial person for your health; and I am sending you one of my court doctors, an honest and learned man.” That doctor was Robert Jacobi, an excellent obstetrician. The formation of a new type of foreign doctor is also associated with his name - a doctor-diplomat who occupied one of the leading places in medicine in the 17th century.
The successor of Ivan the Terrible on the throne, Fyodor Ioannovich, also had a predilection for English doctors. At his request, Queen Elizabeth sent her own court physician, Mark Ridley, a scientist educated in University of Cambridge. Mark Ridley subsequently, leaving for his homeland, left all his scientific works to Russia.
Tsar Boris Fedorovich also attracted foreign doctors to Russia. The English Queen Elizabeth sent him Thomas Willis, who also carried out political assignments, i.e. it was the same type of doctor-diplomat. Taking care of his and his family's health, Tsar Boris gives a special order to Ambassador R. Bekkman to select doctors. The order was quickly completed. The “Fourth Directorate” at the court of Tsar Boris was very significant and multinational: the German Johann Gilke, the Hungarian Ritlenger, and others.
To this day, documents have survived that testify to a thorough preliminary check of foreign doctors involved in the service. Thus, a document dated 1667 contains a list of conditions that a foreign “dokhtur” had to meet: , and does he have certificates of attestation ... And if it’s really not known about that doctor, that he is a direct doctor, and he wasn’t at the academy and he doesn’t have certificates, then don’t call that doctor ... ”
Another document testifies to the refusal of the Dutch doctor: “He is an unknown doctor and there are no certified letters about him.” Of course, we do not exclude penetration into Muscovite Rus under the guise of doctors and charlatans. However, these charlatans were not involved in the development of medicine in Russia.
Most of the foreign doctors who came to Moscow were highly educated people who graduated from the best European universities. Therefore, in Moscow Russia, at the beginning of the establishment of medical practice, many foreign specialists played a big role. And although they were “royal” healers, their knowledge and experience, the medical books written by them, healers settled in Russia, combined with folk medicine, creating unique forms of “healing organization”.
Training of doctors in the Moscow State for a long time was of an artisanal nature: the student studied with one or more doctors for a number of years, then served in the regiment as a medical assistant for several years. Sometimes the Pharmaceutical order appointed a test test (exam), after which the person promoted to the rank of doctor was given a set of surgical instruments.
In 1654, during the war with Poland and the plague epidemic, under the Aptekarsky order, the first in Russia was opened. doctorsky school. It existed at the expense of the state treasury. Children of archers, clergy and service people were accepted into it. Training included collecting herbs, working in a pharmacy, and practicing in the regiment. In addition, the students studied the Latin language, anatomy, pharmacy, diagnosis of diseases ("signs of infirmity") and methods of their treatment. During the hostilities, one-year bone-cutting schools also functioned.
Teaching at the Medical School was visual and was conducted at the bedside of the patient. Anatomy was studied by bone preparations and anatomical drawings. There were no tutorials yet. They were replaced by folk herbalists and healers, as well as "doctor's tales" (case histories).
E. Slavinetsky(1609-1675) was a highly educated and gifted man. He graduated from Krakow University and taught first at the Kiev-Mohyla Academy, and then at the Medical School under the Aptekarsky Prikaz in Moscow. The translation of the work of A. Vesalius made by him was the first scientific book on anatomy in Russia and was used in teaching anatomy at the Medical School. This manuscript was kept in the Synodal Library for a long time, but was subsequently lost and has not been found to this day.
The Pharmaceutical Order made high demands on the students of the Medical School. Those accepted for study promised: "... do no harm to anyone and do not drink or gossip and do not steal by any kind of theft ...". The training lasted 5-7 years. Medical assistants attached to foreign specialists studied from 3 to 12 years. AT different years the number of students ranged from 10 to 40. The first graduation of the Medical School, due to the large shortage of regimental doctors, took place ahead of schedule in 1658. The school functioned irregularly. For 50 years she has trained about 100 Russian doctors. Most of them served in the regiments. The systematic training of medical personnel in Russia began only in the 18th century.
Doctors who provided medical assistance to the civilian population were more often treated at home or in a Russian bath. Inpatient medical care at that time practically did not exist.
Monastic hospitals continued to be built at monasteries. In 1635, at the Trinity-Sergius Lavra, two-story hospital wards were built, which have survived to this day, as well as the hospital wards of the Novo-Devichy, Kirillo-Belozersky and other monasteries. In the Muscovite state, monasteries were of great defensive importance. Therefore, during enemy invasions, temporary hospitals were created on the basis of hospital wards to treat the wounded. And, despite the fact that the Aptekarsky order did not deal with monastic medicine, in wartime the maintenance of patients and their treatment in temporary military hospitals on the territory of monasteries was carried out at the expense of the state.
17th century was also the time of the creation of the first civilian hospitals in Russia. Around 1652, the boyar Fyodor Mikhailovich Rtishchev organized two civil hospitals in his homes, which are considered the first properly arranged civil hospitals in Russia. In 1682, a decree was issued on the opening in Moscow of two hospitals ("spitals") for the civilian population, designed to treat the sick and teach medicine. (In the same year, the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy was established in Moscow.)
Trade relations and political rapprochement with the West, which emerged during the time of Ivan IV the Terrible and noticeably strengthened with the accession to the throne of the Romanov dynasty (1613), had as its consequence an invitation to the royal court of foreign doctors, pharmacists and paramedics from England, Holland, Germany and other countries . Foreign doctors at that time enjoyed great respect and honor in the Muscovite state. However, the circle of people who used their services was very limited (as a rule, the royal court). At the court of Boris Godunov (1598-1606), several foreign doctors, mostly Germans, already served.
The first Russian doctors of medicine appeared in the 15th century. Among them is Georgy Dorogobycha (c. 1450-1494), who received a doctorate in philosophy and medicine from the University of Bologna (1476). Subsequently, he was rector of the University of Bologna (1481-1482), worked in Hungary (1482-1485), lectured at the University of Krakow (since 1485). His work "Prognostic judgment of the current year 1483 by George Drogoba-chas Rus, doctor of medicine of the University of Bologna", published in Rome in Latin, is the first printed book of the Russian author abroad.
In 1512 he received the degree of doctor of medicine in Padua (Italy) Francis Skorina from Polotsk (an outstanding Belarusian first printer and educator). Subsequently, he worked in Prague, Vilna, Koenigsberg.
Thus, the XVI-XVII centuries. in Russia were the time of the formation of pharmacies and pharmacy business, the beginning of the training of doctors from born Russians, the creation of the first hospitals in cities - the time of the birth of the state organization of medical affairs in Russia.
