Phonetics(from the Greek phone - “sound”, phonetikos - “sound, voice”) - the sound structure of the language in all its manifestations and functions.

Language is realized, materially embodied, physically expressed in sounding speech. The speech stream is divided with the help of pauses, intonation and stress into speech units. The largest unit of sounding speech is phrase. Phrases are separated in the speech chain by pauses and are formed by intonation, that is, they have a special melodic pattern (raising or lowering the voice tone).

The phrase is divided into smaller phonetic units - phonetic words, or measures. phonetic word- this is a group of syllables, united by stress (highlighting the vowel sound of one of the syllables with a more intense or prolonged pronunciation). Sometimes several separate grammatical words can be combined with a common stress into one phonetic word: three years "yes, for nothing and so on.

The phonetic word is divided into syllables. A syllable consists of one sound (vowel) or a combination of several sounds (vowel and consonants), while the vowel is the top of the syllable or, in other words, performs a syllable-forming function. It is much easier for speakers to pronounce a syllable than a single sound, so the syllable is considered the minimum pronunciation unit.

The syllable is divided into sounds. The basic unit of sounding speech (the minimum segment of sounding speech) is a separate sound, which has certain articulatory and acoustic properties. Speech sounds differ from each other by various phonetic characteristics: sounds can be voiced or deaf, long or short, etc.

In the flow of speech, various sounds are combined with each other, forming syllables, morphemes, words, while they adapt to each other, influence each other, significantly changing the phonetic characteristics of their “neighbors”. In addition, sounds can alternate with each other as part of a word or morpheme, changing the meanings of words (for example, whale And cat; dry And dryness etc.) - the rules of such alternations are determined by the sound system of the modern language and the features historical development language (see Sound alternation).

Stress and intonation are prosodic means of the language, they organize sounding speech, highlight and shape phonetic units. For example, the transfer of stress in a Russian word from one syllable to another can change lexical meaning words (muka - flour, castle - castle) or the grammatical meaning of the word (hands - hands, pour - pour - pour). Different intonation design can also change the meaning of the whole phrase: "What day is today!"(intonation of admiration) or "What day is today?"(questioning intonation). The placement of pauses within a phrase can also drastically change the meaning of the entire statement: “It is impossible to execute - pardon” or “Execute - it is impossible to pardon”.

The phonetic word and phrase are not a meaningless set of sounds, they are associated with meaning, they have meaning. With their meaning, units of language reflect the world of concepts, that is, the idea of speakers about the surrounding reality, and their form (material shell) refers to the world of pronunciations and sounds. Sounds have no independent meaning. Nevertheless, it cannot be said that these phonetic units are just a means of the material embodiment of the language and are in no way, even indirectly, connected with the meaning. Sounds are aimed at meaning, with the help of sounds the meaning of words and morphemes changes: house - tom - com - catfish - scrap, house - smoke - dum - ladies, house - dol - dock, houses - home, etc. Such a minimal semantic unit of the sound structure of a language is called phoneme.

Sounding speech is the initial, main form of speech communication, however, a graphic representation of sounding speech is also often used in society. Thus, questions of writing are closely connected with the doctrine of sounds.

Speech sounds- minimal insignificant units of sounding speech (the shortest segments of sounding speech), which are formed by the movement of the organs of articulation and are characterized by acoustic features.

The flow of sounding speech is divided by means of prosodic design into phonetic units of various lengths. Sound is the smallest, shortest, indivisible unit of speech. Unlike other language units (morphemes, words, sentences), the sound itself has no meaning. However, morphemes and words are composed (composed) of sounds, in addition, sounds can distinguish between different words.

Sound speech is produced by the speaker and perceived by the listener. Sound is an articulatory-acoustic unity. From the point of view of the speaker, the sound is the result of the work of the organs of speech (articulatory apparatus), that is, an articulatory gesture. The complex structure of the human articulatory apparatus allows the formation of an infinite variety of sounds presented in various languages of the world. From the point of view of the listener, the sound of speech is characterized by physical parameters (acoustic) - height, strength, duration and timbre.

Articulation and acoustic characteristics of sounds are closely interrelated. Speech sounds are produced when air is exhaled from the lungs. The jet of air in the larynx passes through the glottis formed by the vocal cords. If the vocal cords are tense and fluctuate, a voice is formed; when the vocal cords are relaxed, no voice is formed. In the first case, the source of sound formation is the voice, which characterizes vowel sounds, sonorous and voiced consonants.

The specific characteristics of sounds depend on the size and shape of the mouth resonator (see Fig. vowel sounds), from the place of formation of the obstacle and the way it is overcome by the air jet (see Fig. Consonants).

Vowel sounds- speech sounds, which are characterized by the following most important acoustic and articulatory features: firstly, they consist only of tone (voice), and secondly, when they are formed, there is no obstacle in the way of the air stream.

From an acoustic point of view, vowels consist of only one tone, and different ratios of tone and noise characterize consonants. Thus, if only voice is involved in the formation of sound, it is a vowel, and if noise (only noise or voice and noise) is a consonant.

So, when pronouncing vowel sounds, as a result of the vibration of tense vocal cords in the larynx, a voice, or musical tone, is formed. The resulting sound is transformed, enriched with additional tones formed in the supraglottic cavities (pharynx, nasal and oral cavity). These resonator tones give the sound a specific timbre, a special quality that distinguishes one vowel from another. Since the timbre of any sound, its quality depends on the volume and shape of the resonator (cf. the different volume and shape of the resonators in musical instruments: violin, cello and double bass; domra, balalaika, guitar), then the timbre of vowel sounds is formed by the position of the tongue and lips, which can change the size and shape of the oral cavity.

The tongue is the most mobile organ of articulation, it can move horizontally and vertically in the oral cavity, thus forming different vowels.

A different degree of raising the tongue to the palate provides a difference in vowels in rise: the highest position of the tongue forms high vowels ( and, s, y), middle position - mid rise vowels ( e, oh), and the lower one - low vowels ( A). Upper vowels are called closed (narrow), and lower vowels are called open (wide), since when the tongue is lowered, the mouth opens wider and falls lower. lower jaw. If we pronounce the vowels in succession i, e, a, we can feel the vertical movement of the tongue.

The body of the tongue can also move horizontally - move closer to the teeth or move deeply back, to the root of the tongue, forming front vowels ( i, e), average ( A) and rear ( uh oh). If we pronounce the vowels in succession and, s, u, we can notice the horizontal movement of the tongue.

Lips may also be involved in the formation of vowels. When pronouncing rounded vowels ( uh oh) the lips are somewhat rounded and stretched forward.

When articulating vowels, the air stream does not encounter obstacles in the oral cavity, passes freely. The stronger, more intensely we pronounce the vowel sound, the wider we open our mouth. Vowels are mouth openers.

The functional difference between vowels and consonants lies in their role in word formation. The vowel forms the top of the syllable (there is no syllable without a vowel), and the consonant usually accompanies the vowel.

A stressed vowel is a stressed vowel (in a stressed position), pronounced without weakening the articulation, that is, without reduction. This means that the stressed vowel is longer and more intense, pronounced with more force, that is, louder and more intense than the unstressed vowel. The tension and length of articulation contribute to the fact that the individual coloring of the sound, its timbre becomes more definite and clear. Due to this, the position under stress is a strong position for vowels, that is, the position in which the vowels differ the most from each other, they cannot be confused. For example: catfish - himself, forest - foxes.

Unstressed vowel (reduced) - a vowel pronounced with a greater or lesser weakening of articulation. In the unstressed position, vowels are characterized by less force, more sluggish (less energetic) articulation, and usually more brevity. These qualities of unstressed vowels are called reduction. Vowels that are pronounced with reduction are called reduced. The position of the unstressed vowel is weak, since in this position the vowels, pronounced less intensely, usually lose their individual distinctions (in row and rise). With this pronunciation, we sometimes cease to distinguish between meanings different words. For example: I myself [myself] caught a catfish [myself] or I saw a fox [l'isu] in the forest [l'isu].

Consonants- speech sounds, which are characterized by the following most important acoustic and articulatory features: firstly, they consist only of noise or the ratio of tone and noise, and secondly, when they are formed, an obstacle arises in the path of the air stream.

From the point of view of acoustics, consonants are characterized either by noise alone or by various ratios of tone and noise. According to the scale of sonority (sonority), consonants are divided into sonorous (more tone and less noise), voiced (tone and noise) and deaf (only noise).

From the point of view of articulation, the most important sign of consonant sounds is the presence of an obstacle in the path of the air stream. When consonants are formed, the tension is localized at the place where the barrier is formed, a strong air jet overcomes the barrier, forming noises, which constitute the acoustic characteristic of the consonant.

Since the barrier is the main articulatory characteristic of consonant sounds, the main features of consonants are associated with the place where the barrier is formed and the way it is overcome.

Consonants are different place of education barriers. The place of formation (consonant) is a place in the oral cavity where a barrier (bow) or a gap is formed in the path of exhaled air when pronouncing a particular sound. An obstruction can form in different places of the oral cavity, while one of the speech organs that form the obstruction is active, and the other is passive. So, for example, the lower lip can form a bow with another lip - this produces lip-labial sounds ( m, b), and may approach the upper teeth - labial-tooth sounds ( f, in). The tongue is the most active organ of articulation, so it is important to consider which part of the tongue - front, middle or back - works when pronouncing a sound. Depending on this, sounds are front-lingual ( t, n, l), middle-lingual ( th) and posterior lingual ( k, g, x).

The consonants differ from each other not only in the place of the formation of an obstacle in the path of the air stream, but also in the way of overcoming this obstacle. By way of education all consonants can be divided into slotted And occlusive. Fricative (or fricative) consonants are formed by bringing together the organs of articulation, as a result of which a gap is formed through which a stream of air passes with noise and friction. Depending on the configuration of the gap (the gap can be round or flat) and the place of its formation in the oral cavity, whistling ( With And h) or hissing ( w And and) sounds.

In stop consonants, a complete stop is formed on the path of the air stream, which is overcome by the air stream. Stop consonants, in turn, differ in how exactly the barrier is overcome. When articulating explosive consonants ( t, k, p) there is a sharp opening of the organs of articulation, an “explosion”. affricates(sounds of complex formation - c, h) are occlusive-slit consonants, since the air stream first overcomes an obstacle, as in plosives, and then a gap is formed, as in slotted ones. When articulating nasal consonants ( m, n) the barrier in the oral cavity is not overcome, and the air passes into the nasal cavity, when pronouncing trembling sounds ( R) alternately forms and overcomes the bow of the tip of the tongue with the sky, forming a vibration.

Noise is involved in the formation of any consonant, but the ratio of voice and noise for different types of consonants is not the same. Depending on this, consonants are divided into sonorous, voiced and deaf.

In order to pronounce a consonant sound more intensively, it is necessary to increase the tension of the organs of articulation that form an obstacle, that is, consonant sounds - mouth-switches.

Consonant sonorant (sonant) - consonant in whose education the voice predominates or occupies a significant place. Sonorant consonants, like all consonant sounds, are formed with the participation of noises, however sonorants are characterized by the predominance of musical tone over noises. This feature acoustically brings sonorous consonants closer to vowels.

Sonorants are not only acoustically, but also functionally close to vowels - just like vowels, sonorants perform a syllable-forming function.

When sonorous sounds are formed, the air stream encounters an obstacle, but finds various ways to bypass this obstacle - it passes through the nasal cavity ( m, n), or bypasses the bow on the sides ( l), or the bow is repeatedly formed and interrupted ( R), which allows air to pass relatively freely through the mouth or nose. However, the presence of an obstacle in the path of the air jet creates additional noise that is superimposed on the main tone of the sound.

Sonorant consonant th similar in formation to a vowel And, however, when a consonant is formed, there is a greater narrowing in the path of the air stream, which contributes to the formation of slight noise, and the localization of muscle tension at the site of the formation of the consonant.

In Russian, sonorant consonants are sounds m, n, l, r, d. Sounds l And R- smooth and sounds m And n- nasal. Sonorant consonants do not have a voiceless pair.

Voiced consonant- a consonant sound, in the formation of which, along with noise, a voice tone participates. The oscillating vocal cords create a tone that is superimposed by the noise formed by various obstructions in the oral cavity. Voiced consonants: d, b, e, h, f, c. Voiced consonants have a voiceless pair, that is, if, when pronouncing a voiced consonant, we save the place and method of articulation, but pronounce the sound without a voice (without the work of the vocal cords), we will get a deaf sound. There are 11 pairs of consonants in Russian on the basis of voiced-deafness: 6 pairs of solid consonants d - k, e - t, h - s, b - p, c - f, g - w and 6 pairs of corresponding soft consonants.

A deaf consonant is a consonant sound that is formed without a vocal tone, that is, without the participation of the vocal cords. A jet of air on its way meets an obstacle, which it overcomes with noise. Thus, the deaf ones are pronounced with more noise, that is, with a more energetic air stream than voiced ones. Voiceless consonants: k, p, t, s, w, f, x, c, h, u. Some deaf consonants have paired voiced, that is, consonants pronounced with the participation of the voice. For example: k - d, p - b and others (6 pairs of hard and 6 pairs of soft consonants). However, among the deaf consonants there are sounds that do not have a paired voiced. These are the sounds x, c, h, u.

Soft consonant - a consonant sound, during the formation of which the tongue moves forward and the middle part of the back of the tongue rises to the hard palate. This articulatory gesture is an additional articulation that accompanies the main one - the place and method of consonant formation.

Consonants in Russian form 15 pairs, contrasted in hardness / softness: b - b', c - c', g - g', e - d', h - h', k - k', l - l', m - m', n - n', p - p', p - p', s - s', t - t', f - f', x - x'. Unpaired soft sounds are h, w, y, as well as a long sound and', which can be pronounced in words yeast, reins.

In addition, a soft unpaired consonant is th[j]. Indeed, in the formation of a soft consonant, the tongue occupies a position close to that in which it occurs when pronouncing And or th. Therefore, the consonant th softness is not additional, but its main articulation.

Consonant solid- a consonant sound, during the formation of which the body of the tongue moves back, the back of the back of the tongue rises to the soft palate. This is an additional articulation - a movement that accompanies the main articulation of a consonant sound - the place and method of formation of a particular consonant sound. In Russian, 15 hard consonants have a paired soft sound (see. Consonant soft) and unpaired solid consonants: c, w, f.

alternation sounds - interchange of sounds within the same morpheme.

Alternations are found when comparing different sounds of the same morpheme (root, suffix, prefix or ending) or one word. For example, the last consonant in the word oak deafens, and we hear [dup], and when the form of the word changes, the same root sounds differently [oaks]. In this case, the alternation of voiced and deaf consonants (b / p) is presented. Or in a word water under stress we hear the sound [o], and in an unstressed position in the same root - the sound [a]: [vada]. Moreover, the stunning of consonants at the end of a word, as well as the reduction of a vowel sound in an unstressed position, always occur, without exception. This is the rule of Russian orthoepy. Such alternations of sounds depend on the position in which the sound occurs. Phonetic position is the conditions for the use of sounds in speech: at the end of a word or in the middle, before or after any sound, under stress or without stress, etc.

Alternations of sounds, which in a certain position are carried out without exception (depend on the position), are called positional alternations. Sounds, which in Russian are the result of positional alternations, are combined into one phoneme (see. Phoneme).

Alternations of sounds that do not always occur sporadically are called non-positional. For example, friend - I'm friends, hand - manual, spirit - soul - sincere. Most of these alternations arose in previous periods of the development of the language, they can be understood, given the historical changes in the sounds of the language, that is, this is an example historical alternations.

Sometimes the alternation of sounds in a morpheme can change the grammatical meaning of a word: collect - collect(the sound [and] alternates with zero). This changes the meaning of the form of the verb: gather- imperfective verb collect is a perfective verb. Such alternations are called grammatical.

Phoneme - the minimum unit of a language capable of distinguishing between words and morphemes (sound shells of words and morphemes).

Sound speech consists of a huge variety of sounds. These sounds have the finest shades of pronunciation, but we often do not notice these shades, and if we hear them, we do not pay attention, because such shades of sounds are not considered important, they do not distinguish between words and morphemes in the language (they are not semantic). But there are other differences in sounds that are recognized by the speakers as extremely important, they do not mix with each other, they are clearly opposed in the language system, and they allow speakers to distinguish words from each other (sense-distinctive).

As you can see, not every sound can distinguish the meanings of words. Those sounds that are capable of given language perform a semantic function, are called phonemes.

For example, the sound of words house And volume differ in the first consonant sound: voiced [d] in the word house and deaf [t] in the word volume. Also words horse and horse differ in the last consonant sound: hard [n] and soft [n ']. In Russian, voiced and deaf, hard and soft consonants are different sound units that are able to distinguish the meanings of words. They are different phonemes.

It is important to note that the pronunciation of voiced or voiceless, hard or soft sound in this case does not depend on the position in which the sound is used (does not depend on the environment or stress), because in words house And volume the same contexts for the use of initial sounds.

However, often the different pronunciation of sounds depends on the position in which a given sound occurs, that is, on neighboring sounds or stress. In this case, the speaker combines, identifies different sounds in one language unit.

For example, in the flow of speech, a sonorous consonant at the end of a word may be stunned mole(although according to the rules, sonorants should not be stunned - they do not even have a deaf pair). We will pronounce sonorant [l '] loudly or deafly - it doesn’t matter, Russian speakers will combine these two sounds into one unit. The same identification of voiced and deaf will occur in the minds of speakers when pronouncing oak [p] and oak [b]. This alternation of sounds is conditioned by position (cf. Sound alternation).

Positionally alternating sounds are combined in the minds of speakers into one phoneme, which can be represented in speech by different sounds. Language warns: do not pay attention to the fact that you hear different sounds, in front of you is one language unit.

But it could be the other way around. Different phonemes in a certain position can sound the same. For example, the sound [ko "t] will correspond to two words cat with a final phoneme<т>And code(with phoneme<д>), because in the position of the end of the word, the voiced consonant is stunned. Having heard the sound [cat], we cannot know which word is spoken. Two phonemes<e> And<t> coincided in a single sound [t]. To determine the phoneme, you need to change the form of the word: cat - code. In the position before the vowel sound, the consonants are clearly opposed in terms of deafness - voicedness. This change of sounds occurs regardless of position (sounds are in the same environment). The language warns: do not pay attention to the same sound, it hides different units that can distinguish words, that is, different phonemes.

Syllable- one vowel sound or a combination of a vowel with one or more consonant sounds, pronounced with one push of exhaled air. The syllable is the minimum pronunciation unit - with a slow, stretched pronunciation, the speech stream is divided into syllables (scanning).

There are as many syllables in a word as there are vowels (one syllable cannot have several vowels). It is the vowel that is the top of the syllable or the syllable-forming (syllabic) sound, all other sounds in the syllable are non-syllabic. The top of the syllable is the peak of sonority (sonority), therefore vowels are syllabic as the most sonorous, but sometimes sonorous consonants can act as the top of the syllable (if there is no vowel nearby). For example, Kremlin or life:

Kisses in childhood considered
I have a happy life...

(Lermontov)

The rhythm of the verse shows that the word life pronounced with a syllabic sonorant consonant.

Syllables can be stressed or unstressed (cf. stress).

The division of a word into syllables is carried out taking into account the peculiarities of the structure of a syllable in a given language. In Russian, most syllables end in a vowel sound (an open syllable). However, there are also closed syllables: railway carriage. If a closed syllable occurs in the middle of a word, then syllable division is governed by special rules: war-na, lamp-pa, boo-dka. The phonetic syllable does not always match the hyphenation syllable when writing. For example, you cannot carry or leave one vowel on a line, although sometimes this vowel is a phonetic syllable: pit or era.

stress- highlighting one of the syllables in sounding speech - pronouncing one of the syllables (namely the vowel sound in the syllable) with greater force or duration. In Russian, stress is forceful (increased muscle tension and pressure of the air stream) and quantitative (prolonged pronunciation).

A stressed vowel is pronounced more intensely and longer than an unstressed vowel. If the top of the syllable is a stressed vowel, then the whole syllable is called stressed, if the top of the syllable is an unstressed vowel, then the syllable is also called unstressed. In the flow of speech, there are usually several unstressed syllables per stressed syllable. Such a phonetic separation of one syllable against the background of other unstressed syllables forms a phonetic word, contributes to the rhythmic design of sounding speech.

In Russian, stress is multi-placed and mobile. If the stress can fall on any syllable in a word, then it is heterogeneous: to "miki, doro" ha, milk". If the stress in the forms of one word can move from the stem to the ending, then it is movable: but "gi - legu.

In Russian, the transfer of stress from one syllable to another can change the lexical or grammatical meaning of words (see. Phonetics).

Orthoepy- (from the Greek orthos - "straight, correct" and epos - "speech") a set, a system of pronunciation rules that comply with the norms literary pronunciation, which ensure the unity of the sound design of the language.

Russian orthoepy includes the rules for pronunciation of unstressed vowels, voiced and voiceless consonants, hard and soft consonants, consonant combinations, features of pronunciation of borrowed words, issues of correct stress in words.

Some basic rules for Russian literary pronunciation:

1) akanye, that is, the pronunciation of the sound [a] in place of the letter O in unstressed syllables: in [a] yes, with [a] ro "ka;

2) stunning voiced consonants at the end of a word, as well as before deaf consonants: snee[k], lo[t]ka, [f]tornik”

3) consonants w, w, c are always pronounced firmly, and h' And sch' always softly: [tsy] fra, [zhy] zn, [shy] on, ovo [shch’] noy.

The rules of orthoepy regulate the placement of stress in Russian words (since the stress in Russian is mobile and different), for example, the word call in the forms of the present tense, it has an accent on the ending: call, call.

Over time, the pronunciation of some words can change significantly, which leads to a change in the rules of orthoepy.

Transcription- a recording of oral speech, which is based on a strict correspondence between the sounds of the language and the special designations of these sounds. At the same time, transcription reflects the features of the pronunciation of sounds, positional changes in sounds in the speech stream. Phonetic transcription allows you to more or less accurately fix the sounding speech in writing.

Every sign phonetic transcription more or less precisely denotes a certain sound. For example, the stunning of a voiced consonant is conveyed by its deaf variant: pillar[pillar], vowels in an unstressed position are transmitted by a letter that denotes a sound similar in sound to an unstressed vowel: dog[dog] or forest[lisno "th]. Depending on how accurately we want to convey the sounding speech in writing, more or fewer special transcription marks are used. If we want, for example, to indicate that stressed sounds in Russian are pronounced with greater reduction than the first prestressed syllable, we can use additional signs for front and back vowels: [ь] (er) and [ъ] (er): dog[dog]. Also, with a special icon (dot), we can indicate the forward movement of non-front vowels under the influence of neighboring soft consonants: pulls[t'an'et]. In this example above the icon A there are two dots, because the sound [a] is between soft consonants.

Transcription marks are enclosed in square brackets. The softness of a consonant sound is indicated by a special icon - an apostrophe ['], which is placed after a soft consonant: [b '] - soft consonant b.

Sample phonetic transcription:

Why did you miss the boat?

[what"sh you missed't'ul'i lo"tku].

Phonetic analysis - analysis of the sound of a word (combination of words), namely: determining the sound composition of a word, articulatory and acoustic characteristics of individual sounds of a word, dividing the analyzed word into syllables, determining the place of stress, indicating the ratio of the sound of the word (sounds) and the spelling of the word (letters).

Phonetic analysis is carried out according to the following scheme:

1. Make phonetic word transcription, put emphasis.

2. In the transcription, put down the signs of the syllable section (hyphen or vertical line), determine the number of syllables in the word, mark the stressed syllable.

3. Write the letters of the word in a column, sounds next to it, indicating the correspondence of sounds and letters. Indicate the number of letters and sounds in the word.

4. Give each sound a phonetic characteristic: for a vowel, indicate a stressed sound or an unstressed one; for a consonant sound - a sonorous, voiced or deaf sound, hard or soft (indicating pairing).

Sample phonetic parsing:

Pit- 2 syllables, first stressed.

I- - consonant, sonorous, soft unpaired.

- [a] - vowel stressed.

m- [m] - consonant, sonorous, solid double.

A- [a] - unstressed vowel.

This word has 3 letters and 4 sounds.

To be continued

O.A. VOLOSHINA,
Moscow

Russian language

PHONETICS. GRAPHIC ARTS

7. Consonant sounds

The concept of consonants.

Consonants are composed of noise or of voice and noise. When they are formed, the exhaled air, when passing through the speech paths, encounters various obstacles. A jet of air overcomes them, resulting in noise. In total, there are 36 consonants in Russian:

[ b ], [ b'], [ V ], [ V'], [ G ], [ G'], [ d ], [ d'], [ and ], [ h ], [ h'], [ y'], [ To ], [ To'], [ l ], [ l'], [ m ], [ m'], [ n ], [ n'], [ P ], [ P'], [ R ], [ R'], [ With ], [ With'], [ T ], [ T'], [ f ], [ f'], [ X ], [ X'], [ c ], [ h'], [ w ], [ sch'].

Hard and soft consonants.

softness/hardness.

Most hard and soft consonants form pairs:
[b-b', c-c', g-g', d-d', z-z', k-k', l-l', m-m', n-n', p-p' , rr', s-s', t-t', f-f', x-x'].

Solid consonants do not have paired sounds: [zh], [w], [c]
and soft consonants: [ h '], [ u '], [ y '].

voiceless and voiced consonants.

Consonant sounds differ in sonority/deafness.

Voiceless consonants are made entirely of noise. This series includes the following consonants: [ p ], [ p '], [ f ], [ f '], [ k ], [ k '], [ t ], [ t '], [ w ], [ s ], [c'], [x], [x'], [c], [h'], [u'].

The voice is involved in the formation of voiced consonants, they consist of noise and voice. These include the following sounds: [ b ], [ b '], [ c ], [ c '], [ g ], [ g '], [ d ], [ d '], [ f ], [ h ], [s'], [th'], [l], [l'], [m], [m'], [n], [n'], [r], [r'].

Most voiced and voiceless consonants form pairs:
[b-p, b'-p', v-f, v'-f', g-k, g'-k', d-t, d'-t', w-w, s-s, s '-With'].

Deaf consonants do not have paired sounds: [x], [x’], [c], [h’], [u’]
and voiced consonants: [ y '], [ l ], [ l '], [ m ], [ m '], [ n ], [ n '], [ p ], [ p '].

Sonorous sounds.

Sonorant are the sounds [ l ], [ l ’], [ m ], [ m ’], [ n ], [ n ’], [ p ], [ p ’]. They are always voiced, they are not deafened under any circumstances.

Spelling of voiced and voiceless consonants in the root.

To check the spelling of paired voiced and voiceless consonants in the root of a word before consonants, it is necessary to change the word or choose a word with the same root so that after the consonant there is a vowel sound or one of the sonorants l, m, n, r , For example: du b- du b s, about With bba - about With it, nor h cue - no h little.

Spelling of unpronounceable consonants.

To check the spelling of words with unpronounceable consonants, it is necessary to change the form of the word or choose a single-root word in which these consonants are pronounced clearly, for example: l ntse - with l snout, swish T whistle - swish T et.

Designation of soft consonants in writing.

The softness of consonant sounds in writing is indicated in different ways:

1) with help b at the end of a word, for example: shelter b, corner b, sol b, mat b, pole b;

2) with help b in the middle of a word after a soft consonant before another (hard or soft) consonant, for example: nanny b ka, kos b ba, sun b my, tes b ma, con b ki;

3) with help b the softness of the consonant in the middle of the word after the letter is always indicated l , For example: chalk b com, fell b That. However, the double combination ll spelled without b : A ll her, couple ll spruce ;

4) with the help of letters e, yo, yu, i in cases where they are used after a consonant letter, for example: p e l [p'el], n yo s [n'os], l Yu k [l'uk], m I l [m'al].

Exception:
A) in combinations of letters h, w with other consonants b to indicate softness is not written, for example: mo schn ooh, hee schn th ;
b)b not written to indicate the softness of consonants in some words, the spelling of which must be consulted in a spelling dictionary, for example: ne ns ya, mo st ik, gvo zd And .

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The syllable is divided into even smaller units - sounds, which are the smallest units of sounding speech, pronounced in one articulation.

Speech sounds are created by air vibrations and the work of the speech apparatus. Therefore, they can be considered as physiological phenomena, since they arise as a result of human articulatory activity, and physical (acoustic), i.e. perceived by ear. However, one cannot limit oneself to these two aspects when characterizing speech sounds; linguistics studies sounds as special units of language that perform social function, i.e. function of communication between people. For linguistics, it is important to find out to what extent sounds are associated with the distinction between the meaning of words and their forms, whether all sounds are equally important for language as a means of communication. Therefore, in late XIX- the beginning of the 20th century. linguists began to study precisely the functional side of sounds, as a result of which a new department of linguistics appeared - phonology.

The sound composition of the Russian language

All speech sounds are divided into two groups: vowels and consonants.

Vowels and consonants differ in acoustic and articulatory features: 1) vowels are tonal sounds, consonants are formed with the participation of noise; 2) vowels are sounds that are formed without the participation of an obstacle in the path of the air stream, all consonants are formed with the help of an obstacle (closed lips - [b], [p], a gap between the tongue and the hard palate - [x], etc. ); 3) vowels are not differentiated according to the method and place of formation, for consonants, the place and method of formation are very significant grounds for their classification; 4) during the formation of vowels, the organs of speech are tense evenly, while the formation of consonants, the organs of speech are most tense in the place where there is an obstacle; 5) the air stream when pronouncing vowels is weak, and when pronouncing consonants it is strong, since it needs to overcome the obstacle existing in its path; 6) all vowels can be syllabic, consonants (except sonorants) cannot form a syllable on their own.

In this opposition of vowels and consonants of speech sounds, an intermediate position is occupied by sonorant consonants, which are partly close to consonants (formation with the help of a barrier, differentiation according to the method and place of formation, the presence of noise), and partly to vowels (the predominance of tone, the ability to form a syllable) .

There are six vowel sounds (phonemes) in Russian: [i], [s], [y], [e], [o], [a]. Their classification is based on articulatory features: the degree of elevation of the tongue, the row, the participation of the lips.

There are 37 consonant sounds (phonemes) in the modern Russian language. Their formation and classification is much more complicated than that of vowels.

Intonation

Each phrase is articulated intonation.

Intonation- this is a set of means of organizing sounding speech, reflecting its semantic and emotional-volitional side and manifested in successive changes in pitch (melodics - raising or lowering the tone), speech rhythm (ratio of strong and weak, long and short syllables), speech tempo (acceleration and slowing down in the flow of speech), the strength of the sound (intensity of speech), intra-phrase pauses (which is reflected in the rhythm of the phrase) and the general timbre of the statement, which, depending on the target setting, can be “funny”, “playful”, “scared”, "gloomy", etc. Intonation performs important functions: it not only forms phrases, sentences and various syntactic constructions, but also participates in the expression of thoughts, feelings and the will of people. In fact, the same segment of a sounding speech, depending on how, with what intonation it is pronounced, can have different meaning: He came. - He came! - He came? The intonation of narrative speech is characterized by an increase in tone at the beginning of a phrase and a decrease in tone at the end of a phrase, at an indent; the interrogative phrase is characterized by a sharp rise in the indent; the intonation of the exclamatory phrase is even high.

It is difficult to convey intonation differences in writing. Apart from the dot, colon, dash, comma, brackets, exclamation mark, question mark, and ellipsis, we have no way of conveying the character of intonation in writing. And even with the help of these signs, it is far from always possible to reflect the intonation pattern of a phrase. For example:

Who does not know that he was the first to express this idea? - there is a question mark at the end of the sentence, but the phrase has an affirmative, not an interrogative meaning.

Intonation also performs another important function - with its help, a sentence is divided into semantic-syntactic units - syntagmas.

Variety of sounds and their difference

There are many sounds in every language. And in different languages their number is different, as is the ratio between vowels and consonants.

Each sound has its own acoustic features, characteristics to which modern phonologists are paying more and more attention, since they believe that the acoustic classification is a true linguistic classification, concerned with finding out what a sound is, while the articulatory classification of sounds (the most common) is aimed at understanding how sound is produced.

Sounds differ from one another in pitch, longitude, strength and timbre. Therefore, any two sounds that have different indicators of pitch, strength and timbre are different from an acoustic point of view. In addition, there are differences between sounds, explained by subjective and objective moments. 1. Individual differences between sounds are associated with the peculiarities of the pronunciation of individual people. Each person pronounces sounds to some extent in his own way. For linguistics, only such differences between sounds are important that make changes in the meanings of words. If two people (for example, a student and a professor) uttered the word student, then we notice that this word was uttered by them differently, but at the same time we assert that they uttered the same word. But if the same person utters two words, for example, a garden and a court, then we will find out without the slightest difficulty that these are different words, since they have two different sounds [a, y], which distinguish their sound appearance and indicate differences in meaning.

Thus, individual differences in the pronunciation of the same sound are not linguistically important. Conversely, different sounds are linguistically important as units of a language system, regardless of the different pronunciation of them by individual people.

2. When we say the word city[gort], in the stressed syllable, in place of the sound [o], a very obscure sound sounds, as it happens reduction(from the Latin reducere - to return, bring back) - weakening of sound under the influence of those phonetic conditions in which the sound turned out to be(unstressed position). Here the sound [o] not only loses part of its sonority, but also loses its quality - it turns into a sound [b]. In the same word, the final sound [d] is deafened, pronounced as [t] - this is a characteristic law of the modern Russian language (voiced consonants in the position of the end of the word are deafened). get stunned or speak out loud consonants can also be in the middle of a word under the influence of the subsequent deaf or voiced consonant: oak - oak [dupka], ask - request [proz" ba]. These phenomena indicate that under certain phonetic conditions (voiced before the deaf, deaf before the voiced, voiced at the end of a word, a vowel in an unstressed position, etc.) it is possible that one sound influences another and their changes or other sound processes.Such differences between sounds are usually called phonetically determined. They also do not have a linguistically significant meaning, since the word and its meaning do not change.

3. In words WHO And university after the consonant [v], we pronounce different sounds. These sounds in these words serve distinguishers their meaning. The difference in sounds is not positionally determined, since both act in the same position (stressed - strong for vowels), there is also no influence of neighboring sounds here. Differences between sounds that are not due to either the individual characteristics of pronunciation, or the position of the sound, or the influence of one sound on another, are called functional. Functional differences between sounds are of linguistic importance.

Consequently, two sounds, the difference between which is not due to the position or influence of neighboring sounds, but is associated with a change in the meaning of the word, are functionally different.

onetic transcription

To record sounding speech, a special system of signs is used - phonetic transcription. Phonetic transcription is based on the principle of a one-to-one correspondence between a sound and its graphic symbol.

The transcribed sound (word, sentence, text) is usually enclosed in square brackets: [we] we. Sounding speech is recorded without capital letters and punctuation marks, but with pauses.

In words consisting of more than one syllable, the place of stress should be indicated: [z'imá] winter. If two words (for example, a preposition and a noun) are characterized by a single stress and are pronounced together, then they are connected by a league: [v_dom].
In Russian phonetic transcription, letters of the Russian alphabet are mainly used. Recording of consonants is carried out using all the corresponding letters, except for u and y. Special superscript or subscript icons can be placed next to the letter. They indicate some features of the sound:

[n '] - soft consonant ([n '] yobo palate);

[n:] - long consonant (bath); may be denoted by an accent or [n:].

The letter u in most cases corresponds to the sound that is conveyed by the sign [w ':]: y [w ':] élie, [w ':] etina. A voiced parallel to [w ':] will be the sound [zh ':], speaking, for example, in the word dró [zh ':] and yeast (other pronunciation is also allowed - dró [zh:] and).

The Latin letter [j] in transcription denotes the consonant “yot”, which sounds in the words block apple, water reservoir, sparrows [b'ji´] sparrows, language language, sará [j] barn, má [j] ka shirt, chá [ j] nickname teapot, etc. Please note that the consonant "yot" is not always transmitted in writing with the letter y.

Recording of vowel sounds is carried out using various kinds of signs.

Stressed vowels are transcribed using six characters: [i] - [p'ir] fir, [s] - [ardor] ardor, [y] - [beam] ray, [e] - [l'es] forest, [o ] - [house] house, [a] - [garden] garden.
Unstressed vowels undergo various changes depending on the place in relation to stress, on the neighborhood of hard or soft consonants, on the type of syllable. To record unstressed vowels, the symbols [y], [i], [s], [a], [b], [b] are used.

Unstressed [y] occurs in any syllable. In its quality, it is similar to the corresponding stressed vowel: m[u]zykálny, r[u]ká, water[u], [u]dar.
Unstressed vowels [and], [s], [a] are pronounced in the syllable that immediately precedes the stressed syllable (such a syllable is called the first pre-stressed one): [r'i] dov rows, mod [s] lér fashion designer, d [a] ská board . The same vowels, with the exception of [s], also appear at the absolute beginning of the word: [and] excursionist excursionist, [a] to search.
Unstressed [and], [s], [a] are similar in quality to the corresponding percussive sounds, but not identical to them. So, unstressed [and] turns out to be a vowel, middle between [and] and [e], but closer to [and]: [l'i] sá fox - cf .: [l'i´] fox himself. The pronunciation of the other vowels is also different. The use of the symbols [i], [s], [a] to denote unstressed sounds is associated with a certain degree of conventionality.

So, the unstressed vowels listed above are typical for the positions of the 1st pre-stressed syllable and the absolute beginning of the word. In other cases, the sounds [b] and [b] are pronounced.

The sign [ъ] (“ep”) conveys a very short sound, in its quality it is average between [s] and [a]. The vowel [ъ] is one of the most frequent sounds in Russian speech. It is pronounced, for example, in the 2nd pre-stressed and in stressed syllables after solid ones: p [b] rohod steamboat, in [b] water carrier, back [b] l set, city [b] city.

In similar positions, after soft consonants, a sound is recorded that resembles [and], but is shorter. This vowel is conveyed by the sign [b] (“er”): [m'b] ditch world, [m'b] catchy chalky, za [m'b] r froze, za [l'l] zhi deposits.

Organs of speech. Formation of vowels and consonants

Sounds are made during exhalation. The flow of exhaled air is a necessary condition for the formation of sounds.

The jet of air leaving the trachea must pass through the larynx, which contains the vocal cords. If the ligaments are tense and close together, then the exhaled air will cause them to oscillate, resulting in a voice, that is, a musical sound, a tone. Tone is required when pronouncing vowels and voiced consonants.

The pronunciation of consonants is necessarily associated with overcoming the obstacle created in the oral cavity on the path of the air stream. This obstacle arises as a result of the convergence of the organs of speech to the boundaries of the gap ([f], [c], [h], [w]) or a complete closure ([p], [m], [d], [k]).

Various organs can be close or closed: the lower lip with the upper lip ([p], [m]) or upper teeth ([f], [c]), certain parts of the tongue with hard and soft palate ([h], [d ], [w], [k]). The organs involved in the creation of the barrier are divided into passive and active. The former remain motionless, the latter make certain movements.

The air jet overcomes the gap or bow, resulting in a specific noise. The latter is an obligatory component of the consonant sound. In the voiced, the noise is combined with the tone; in the deaf, it turns out to be the only component of the sound.

When pronouncing vowels, the vocal cords vibrate, and a free, unhindered passage through the oral cavity is provided for the air stream. Therefore, the vowel sound is characterized by the presence of tone and total absence noise. The specific sound of each vowel (what distinguishes [i] from [s], etc.) depends on the position of the tongue and lips.

The movements of the pronunciation organs during the formation of sounds are called articulation, and the characteristics of sounds corresponding to them are called articulation characteristics.

sweet sounds
Stressed vowels: classification features
The classification of vowel sounds is based on signs that describe the work of the organs of speech: 1) the movement of the tongue forward - backward (row);
2) the movement of the tongue up - down (rise);
3) the position of the lips (labialization).

On the basis of the number of vowels are divided into three main groups. When articulating front vowels ([i], [e]), the tongue is concentrated in the front of the oral cavity. When articulating back vowels ([y], [o]) - in the back. Middle vowels ([ы], [а]) occupy an intermediate position.
The lift sign describes the position of the tongue as it moves up or down. High vowels ([i], [s], [y]) are characterized by a high position of the tongue in the oral cavity. The articulation of the low vowel ([a]) is associated with the low position of the tongue. Vowels of the middle rise ([e], [o]) are given a place between the named extreme groups.
The vowels [y] and [o] are labialized (or rounded), because when they are pronounced, the lips are pulled forward and rounded. The remaining vowels are pronounced with a neutral lip style and are non-labialized: [i], [s], [e], [a].

The table of stressed vowels is as follows:

climb:
upper and´ ы´ ý (labial)
middle e´ ó (labial)
lower a

Unstressed vowels: classification features
In unstressed syllables, sounds other than those under stress are pronounced. They turn out to be shorter and articulated with less muscular tension of the organs of speech. This change in the sound of vowels is called reduction. So, all unstressed vowels in Russian are reduced.
Unstressed vowels differ from stressed vowels both quantitatively and qualitatively. On the one hand, unstressed vowels are always shorter than stressed vowels (cf.: s[a]dy´ gardens´ - s[á]dik sadik, p[i]lá pilá - n[i´]lit púlit). This feature of the sound of vowels in an unstressed position is called quantitative reduction.
On the other hand, not only the duration changes, but also the very quality of the vowels. In this regard, they speak of a qualitative reduction of vowels in an unstressed position. Paired with [b] argument gardener - with [á] dik unstressed garden [b] is not just shorter - it differs from stressed [á].
Any unstressed vowel experiences quantitative and at the same time quality reduction. When pronouncing unstressed, the language does not reach the extreme points of advancement and tends to take a more neutral position.

The most "convenient" in this regard is the sound [b]. This is a vowel of the middle row, middle rise, non-labialized: with [b] an airplane flies, b [b] a furrow.

The articulation of all unstressed vowels shifts towards the “central” [b]. When pronouncing unstressed [s], [u], [y], [a], the force of change is not very significant: cf. r [s] bak fisherman - r [s'] ba fish, [s'i] net blue - [s' and'] niy, r [y] ká ruk - r [ý] ki ruki, l [ a] skát caress - l[á] skovy affectionate .. Unstressed [s], [i], [y], [a] can be left in the same cells of the table as the drums, slightly shifting them to the center.
Unstressed [b] ([s’b] neva blue) should take an intermediate position between unstressed [and] and “central” [b].
The sound "er" is characterized as a front-mid vowel, upper-mid rise, non-labialized.
The reduction can be stronger or less strong. Among the listed unstressed vowels, the sounds [b] and [b] stand out for their brevity. The rest of the vowels are more pronounced.
The vowel table, supplemented with unstressed sounds, takes the following form:
row: front middle back
climb:
upper i´ s´ y (labial.) y
and y
b
average
e´ b ó (labial)
lower a
á

Features of the pronunciation of vowels in unstressed positions (positional distribution of vowels)

Features of the pronunciation of vowels in unstressed positions depend on a number of conditions:
1) places in relation to the stressed syllable,
2) positions at the absolute beginning of a word,
3) hardness / softness of the preceding consonant.
The place in relation to the stressed syllable determines the degree of reduction of vowels. In phonetics, it is customary to name syllables not by their order in the word, but by the place occupied relative to the stressed syllable. All unstressed syllables are divided into pre-stressed and stressed. The numbering of pre-stressed syllables is carried out in the direction from the stressed syllable, that is, from right to left.
In the first pre-stressed syllable, four vowels are possible - unstressed [u], [i], [s], [a]: n [u] waiting need, [ch'i] s s'clock, w[s] lka silk, n [a]chnoy night.
In the remaining unstressed syllables (second, third pre-stressed and stressed), strongly reduced vowels [b], [b], as well as the sound [y] are pronounced. In the second pre-stressed syllable: d [b] movy smoke and brownie, [m's] meat grinder, [ch'u] do-work miraculous.
In stressed syllables: swamp [b] m swamp and swamps, gentle [b] d gentle and tender, blue [n'b] m blue and blue, pó [l's] m field, horse by horse.
In stressed syllables, at the absolute end of the word, along with the sounds [b], [b] and [y], the vowel [s] is fixed, only a very short one: note [s] note, note [b] note, no [t'b] note , note[y] note.
The position at the absolute beginning of a word after a pause also affects the features of vowel reduction. In this position, the sounds [y], [and], [a] are pronounced, regardless of their distance from the stressed syllable: [u] take away, [and] exporter exporter, [a] say stipulate.

Features of the distribution of unstressed vowels in a word can be presented in the form of a table.

In stressed syllable: drums [ý], [i´], [s´], [e´], [ó], [á]
In the 1st prestressed syllable, at the absolute beginning of a word: unstressed [y], [and], [s], [a]
In the 2nd, 3rd pre-stressed syllable,in stressed syllables: unstressed [b], [b], [y] + [s](in the abs. end of the word)
Hardness / softness of the preceding consonant - important factor, which determines the possibility of the appearance of certain vowels:

1) after hard can act[y], [s], [a], [b]: [lu] meadow meadow, [ly] net to go bald, [la] réts casket, [l] horses' horses;
2) after soft are pronounced[y], [and], [b]: [l'u] to be afraid to admire, [ch'i] to turn black, [l'l] doryub ice ax;
3) pre-shock[a] and [b] after soft ones are impossible: [r'i] dy' rows, [n'i] ti' five, [r'b] second private, [n'b] five-year-old tablet;
4) [b] after soft appears only in reflexive -sya, in endings and formative suffixes. Such pronunciation is possible, but not mandatory, and is associated with the task of conveying grammatical information about case, number, etc.:
received i´l [s'b] turned out - at the babý [s'b] at the grandmother;
drop [l'b] drop - drop [l'b] drop;
bear [d'b] m bears - bear [d'b] m bear;
landing in y´sa [d'b] - in y´sa [d'b] land.
All the features of vowel pronunciation analyzed above relate to the phonetics of commonly used significant words. Unions, prepositions, particles, interjections, rare borrowings may not obey the described patterns. They allow, for example, the following pronunciation of non-high vowels: slept, n[o] not for long, b[o]á, andánt[e].kt

It is easy to see that the expression of the thought contained in this phrase requires an obligatory pause after the word weapon. The presence of a pause creates two speech measures in a phrase. Thus, a speech tact is a part of a phrase, limited by pauses and characterized by an intonation of incompleteness. Pauses between speech measures are shorter than between phrases.

The speech tact, as well as the phrase, is directly related to the expression of content in the language. Depending on where one speech measure ends and the next begins, the whole meaning of the phrase sometimes changes: How he was struck // by the words of his brother. — How struck by his words // brother. The arbitrariness of dividing a phrase into speech beats can lead to the complete destruction of thought.

As a rule, the phrase consists of several speech measures: In the hour of trials // bow to the fatherland // in Russian // at the feet (D. Kedrin). The measure can coincide with a single word. But usually several words are combined in a speech tact.

onetic vowel alternations. Designation of unstressed vowels in writing

A vowel belonging to a certain morpheme can be stressed in some words, unstressed in others. So, the unstressed [and] in the word [d’o] cheap cheap corresponds to the stressed labialized [ó], which sounds in the same root in the word [d’o] cheap cheap.

Sounds belonging to the same morpheme (root, prefix, suffix, ending) and replacing each other in different phonetic positions form a phonetic alternation. In the example above, the phonetic alternation [ó] // [and] is fixed.

In Russian, the following are possible alternation of percussion and unstressed sounds:

1. [ý] // [y] z[ý] would, z[u]bnoy: teeth, dental.

2. [i´] // [and] // [b] [p’i´] shet, [p’i] sat, [n’b] sani´na: writes, writes, scribbling.

3. [y´] // [s] // [b] w[y´] re, w[s] rok, w[b] rok: wider, wide, wide.

4. [and´] // [s´] // [and] // [s] [and´] games, with [s´] grand, [and] play, with [s] play: games, played, play, play.

5. [e´] // [s] // [b] sh [e] st, sh [s] stá, sh [b] stovoy: pole, pole, pole.

6. [e´] // [and] // [b] [p’e´] shiy, [p’i] shkóm, [p’b] shekhod: on foot, on foot, pedestrian.

7. [ó] // [a] // [ъ] d[ó] mik, d[a] home, d[b] mov: house, home, brownie.

8. [ó] // [and] // [b] [p'ó] strobe, [p'i] str and´t, [n'b] strotá: colorful, variegated, variegated.

9. [ó] // [s] // [b] sh[ó] lka, sh[s] lká, sh [b] lkov i´ty: silk, silk, silky.

10. [á] // [a] // [b] tr[á] vka, tr[a] vá, tr[b] wiry: grass, grass, herbal.

11. [á] // [and] // [b] [p'á]th, [n'i] so, [n'y] wheelbarrow: fifth, nickel, piglet.

Please note that the quality of the letter unstressed sound not marked. The fact that a vowel is unstressed is a signal orthograms. In the roots of the words on foot, dazzle, nickel, pronounced with unstressed [and], the letter is not written. When choosing the correct letter in these examples, you need to focus on the stressed version of the pronunciation of the root: [p'e´] shy, [p'ó] stro, [p'á] ty.

Such a check underlies the leading principle of Russian spelling - morphematic (more precisely, phonemic). The morpheme receives such a graphical representation, in which. positionally alternating sounds are written with one letter in accordance with the strong variant (the vowel is checked by stress, the consonant is placed before the vowel).

The spelling of unstressed vowels that are not checked by stress falls under another spelling principle - the traditional one. In dictionary words with [a] báka, p ['i] chál, r ['i] b i´na, it is customary to write the letters o, e, i, in examples like mind [' and] rlá / mind [' and] rála - letters e and i. The last two examples are related to the operation of the rules, which in all reference books are given under the heading "Alternating vowels in the root." It should be borne in mind that in this case we are not talking about any phonetic alternations.

It is extremely rare for unstressed vowels to be written in accordance with the phonetic principle of orthography. The prefix ras- / raz- / ros- / rose- has four graphic variants, correlated with the peculiarities of its pronunciation in different words, and not with the situation of verification: p[a] confuse unravel, p[a] destroy destroy, p[ó] write down the painting in the presence of p[ó] rally rally (it is the last option that would be a test, because in it the vowel is under stress, and the consonant before the vowel).

vowels

Consonant sounds: classification features.
When classifying consonants, it is customary to take into account a number of features:
1) the ratio of noise and tone (noisiness / sonority),
2) participation or non-participation of the voice (sonority / deafness),
3) hardness / softness,
4) place of formation,
5) the way of education.

Particularly stipulated are the properties of pairing in deafness / sonority and pairing in hardness / softness.

Noisy and sonorous, deaf and voiced consonants

Noisy and sonorous consonants differ in the ratio of noise and tone.

Sonorants in Russian include nine sounds: [m], [m’], [n], [n’], [l], [l’], [p], [p’], [j]. As with all consonants, a barrier is created during the articulation of sonorants in the oral cavity. However, the force of friction of the air jet against the contiguous / closed organs of speech is minimal: the air jet finds a relatively free exit to the outside and no noise is generated. Air rushes either through the nose ([m], [m '], [n], [n ']), or into the passage between the lateral edges of the tongue and cheeks ([l], [l ']). The absence of noise can be associated with the instantaneous nature of the barrier ([p], [p']) or with the rather wide nature of the gap itself ([j]). In any case, noise is not created and the main source of sound is the tone (voice) created by the vibration of the vocal cords.

In the formation of noisy consonants ([b], [c], [g], [e], [g], [h], etc.), on the contrary, noise plays the main role. It occurs as a result of overcoming an obstacle with an air stream. The tonal component of the sound is non-basic and may either be completely absent (for deaf consonants) or supplement the main one (for voiced consonants).
Voiced and voiceless consonants differ in the participation / non-participation of tone (voice) in the formation of a consonant sound.

Tone (voice) is characteristic of the pronunciation of voiced, their articulation implies the obligatory work of the vocal cords. Voiced, therefore, are all sonorants: [m], [m '], [n], [n '], [l], [l '], [p], [p '], [j]. Among the noisy consonants, the voiced sounds include the following sounds: [b], [b '], [c], [c '], [g], [g '], [d], [d '], [g], [ f:'], [h], [h'].

[b] - [n] [b '] - [n '] [s] - [s] [s '] - [s ']

[c] - [f] [c '] - [f '] [g] - [w] [w: '] - [w: ']

[d] - [t] [d '] - [t '] [g] - [k] [g '] - [k ']

The listed sounds are, respectively, either voiced pairs or deaf pairs. The remaining consonants are characterized as unpaired. All sonorants are referred to voiced unpaired, sounds [c], [h '], [x], [x '] are deaf unpaired.

onetic alternations of consonants according to deafness / sonority. Designation of deafness / voiced consonants in writing

The deafness / voicedness of consonants remains an independent, independent sign in the following positions:
1) before vowels: [su]d court - [zu]d itching, [ta]m there - [da]m ladies;
2) in front of sonorants: [layer] th layer - [evil] oh evil, [tl '] I aphid - [dl '] I for;
3) before [in], [in ']: [verify '] check check - [beast '] beast beast.

In these positions, both voiceless and voiced consonants are found, and these sounds are used to distinguish between words (morphemes). The listed positions are called strong in deafness / sonority.

In other cases, the appearance of a deaf / ringing sound predetermined by its position in the word or the proximity of a particular sound. Such deafness / sonority turns out to be dependent, “forced”. Positions in which this happens are considered weak on the basis of the specified attribute.

The Russian language has a law according to which voiced noisy ones are deafened at the end of a word, cf. In the given examples, the phonetic alternation of consonants according to deafness / voicedness is fixed: [b] // [p] and [h '] // [s '].

In addition, positional changes relate to situations where the voiceless and voiced consonants are close. In this case, the subsequent sound affects the previous one. Voiced consonants in front of the deaf are necessarily likened to them in deafness, as a result, a sequence of deaf sounds arises, cf. ready [in ']it is preparing - ready [f't'] do not cook (i.e. [in '] // [f '] in front of the deaf).

Deaf consonants facing voiced noisy ones (except [c], [c ']) change to voiced ones, there is an assimilation by voicedness, cf. [t '] // [d '] before the voiced), ask [s '] and´t to ask - ask for [s'b] a request (i.e. [s '] // [s '] before the voiced) .

Articulatory assimilation of sounds of the same nature, that is, two consonants (or two vowels), is called assimilation (from Latin assimilatio ‘similarity’). Thus, assimilation by deafness and assimilation by voicedness was described above.

The designation of deafness / voiced consonants in writing is associated with the use of the corresponding letters: t or d, p or b, etc. However, only independent, independent deafness / sonority is indicated on the letter. Sound signs that turn out to be “forced”, positionally conditioned, are not indicated in the letter. Thus, phonetically alternating sounds are written with one letter, the morphematic principle of spelling operates: in the word du [p] oak, the letter b is written, as in the test du [b] a of oak.

The exception will be the spelling of some borrowed words (transcription [p]tion transcription if available transcription [b '] to transcribe) and prefixes on s / s (and [s] use use if available and [s] learn to study). The graphic appearance of such examples falls under the phonetic principle of orthography. True, in the case of prefixes, it does not work to the end, combined with the traditional one: ra[w:] move = ra[w] stir stir up.

The traditional principle of spelling is subject to the choice of a letter in dictionary words such as v[g] hall station, and [z] best asbestos. Their spelling does not depend on verification (it is impossible), nor on pronunciation.

hard and soft consonants

Hard and soft consonants differ in the position of the tongue.

When pronouncing soft consonants ([b '], [c '], [d '], [h '], etc.), the entire body of the tongue moves forward, and the middle part of the back of the tongue rises to the hard palate. This movement of the tongue is called palatalization. Palatalization is considered an additional articulation: it is superimposed on the main one associated with the formation of an obstruction.

When pronouncing solid consonants ([b], [c], [d], [h], etc.), the tongue does not move forward and its middle part does not rise.

Consonants form 15 pairs of sounds opposed in hardness / softness. All of them are either hard pairs or soft pairs:

[b] - [b '] [n] - [n '] [m] - [m ']

[in] - [in '] [f] - [f '] [n] - [n ']

[g] - [g '] [k] - [k '] [p] - [p ']

[d] - [d '] [t] - [t '] [l] - [l ']

[s] - [s '] [s] - [s '] [x] - [x ']

The hard unpaired ones include the consonants [c], [w], [g], and the soft unpaired ones include the consonants [h '], [w: '], [g: '] and [j].

The consonants [w] and [w: ’], [g] and [g: ’] do not form pairs, as they differ in two features at once: hardness / softness and brevity / longitude.

It should be noted that the sound [zh: '] is rare. It is possible only in a limited circle of words: I drive, reins, yeast, splashes, later and some others. At the same time, [zh: '] is increasingly being replaced by [zh:].

A very special position among soft consonants is occupied by the sound [j]. In the rest of the soft consonants, the raising of the middle part of the back of the tongue to the hard palate is, as noted above, an additional articulation. The consonant [j] has the indicated articulation as the main one, because there are no other barriers when pronouncing [j]. Therefore, the sound [j] is in principle not capable of having a solid pair.

onetic alternations of consonants in hardness/softness. Designation of hardness / softness of consonants in writing. Letters b and b

The hardness / softness of consonants as an independent feature, and not arising due to positional changes, is fixed in the following strong positions:

1) before vowels, including [e]: [lu] to bow - [l'u] to hatch, [but] with nose - [n'o] s carried, past [t e´] pastel - pos [t 'e´]l bed;
Paired soft consonants before [e] are pronounced in native Russian words, paired hard ones - in borrowed ones. However, many of these borrowings have ceased to be perceived as rare: antenna, cafe, sausage, stress, mashed potatoes, prosthesis, etc. As a result, both hard and soft pronunciation of the consonant before [e] became possible in commonly used words.

2) at the end of the word: ko [n] kon - ko [n '] horse, zha [r] heat - zha [r '] heat;

3) for sounds [l], [l ’], regardless of their position: in [l] ná wave - in [l ’] ná free;

4) for consonants [c], [s '], [s], [s '], [t], [t '], [d], [d '], [n], [n '], [ p], [p'] (for front-lingual)
- in the position before [k], [k '], [g], [g '], [x], [x '] (before back-lingual): gó [r] ka hill - gó [r '] ko bitterly, bá [n] ka banka - bá [n '] ka banka;
- in a position before [b], [b '], [p], [n '], [m], [m '] (before the lips): and [z] bá hut - re [z '] bá carving;

In other cases, the hardness or softness of the consonant will not be independent, but caused by the influence of sounds on each other.

Similarity in hardness is observed, for example, in the case of a combination of soft [n '] with hard [s], cf. cue (i.e. [n'] // [n] before solid). A pair of June [n’] June - June’s [n’s] cue June does not follow this pattern. But this exception is the only one.

Assimilation by softness is carried out inconsistently in relation to different groups of consonants and is not respected by all speakers. Only the replacement [n] with [n '] before [h '] and [w: '] knows no deviations, cf: drum [n] drum - drum [n "h '] ik drum, gó [n] ok races - gó[n' w:']ik racer (i.e. [n] // [n'] before soft).

In accordance with the old norms, it was necessary to say: l ´ [m’k ’] and straps, [v’b ’] to drive in; [d’v ’] er the door; [with'j] eat eat; [s’t’] ená wall. In modern pronunciation, there is no mandatory softening of the first sound in these cases. So, the word la´[mk ’] and straps (similarly trya´[pk ’] and rags, lá[fk ’] and benches) is pronounced only with a solid, other sound combinations allow pronunciation variability.

The designation in writing applies only to cases of independent, and not positionally determined, hardness / softness of paired consonants. At the literal level, the soft sound quality [n '] in the words drum and racer is not graphically fixed.

Unlike deafness / sonority, independent softness of paired consonants is conveyed not by the letter corresponding to the consonant sound, but by the letter following it - by the letters i, e, u, i: face, ice, hatch, clang;
In modern language, the letter e has ceased to denote the softness of the preceding consonant. The combination of letters ... those ... cannot be read if you do not see what word it belongs to - dough or test.

2) at the end of the word with a soft sign: horse, heat, dust;

3) in the middle of a word, before a consonant letter, a soft sign: darkness, very, bathhouse.

The independent hardness of paired consonants is transmitted by such means:

Letters s, o, y, a, e: bast, boat, bow, weasel, karate;

At the end of the word, the absence of a soft sign: con_, heat_, puff_l;

In the middle of a word before a consonant there is no soft sign:
t_ min, s_ looks, bank_ ka.

The hardness / softness of unpaired consonants does not require a separate designation. The spelling i / s, ё / o, yu / y, ya / a after the letters w, w, h, u, c, corresponding to unpaired ones, is dictated by tradition: life, number, chicken, burn, burn, joke, brochure, cup. The same applies to the use / disuse of the letter soft sign in a number of grammatical forms: rye, married _, silence, baby_, thing, comrade_, can, brick_.

Please note that the name of the letters b and b turns out to be insidious. The letter "hard sign" never denotes hardness, its use is associated with a separating function, i.e. indicating the presence of [j] before the next vowel sound: st will eat, and [d'ju] tant adjutant.

The functions of the letter "soft sign" are wider. Firstly, it can also be used in the separating function, but not after prefixes: [vjý]ga blizzard, bu[l'jó]n broth. In this case, the letter b does not indicate the softness of the consonant. Secondly, a soft sign can traditionally be written in a number of grammatical forms after letters corresponding to unpaired consonants (see above). The letter ь again does not convey the softness of sounds in this use. And finally, in a number of situations, the letter b denotes the softness of consonants in writing. This function extends to examples with independent softness of paired consonants at the end of a word and in the middle of a word before a consonant (see above).

place and method of forming consonants

The place of formation of a consonant sound is a sign showing where in the oral cavity the air stream meets an obstacle.

This characteristic is given with the obligatory indication of the active (moving) and passive (fixed) organs. So, consonants, the articulation of which is associated with the movement of the lower lip, are labial-labial ([p], [p '], [b], [b '], [m], [m ']) and labial-dental ([ f], [f'], [v], [v']). Consonants formed with the active participation of the language are divided into front-lingual dental ([s], [s'], [s], [s'], [t], [t'], [d], [d'], [ c], [l], [l '], [n], [n ']), anterior lingual anterior palatals ([w], [w '], [g], [g '], [h '], [r ], [p ']), medial lingual palatals ([j]), posterior lingual palatals ([k '], [g '], [x ']) and posterior lingual posterior palatals ([k], [g], [x]) . All listed groups of sounds are reflected in the table of consonants (see below).

Considering the table (Appendix to the publication), be sure to pronounce the sounds given in it. The work of your own organs of speech will help you understand why each sound is placed in a particular cell.

The method of forming a consonant is a characteristic that simultaneously indicates the type of barrier in the oral cavity and the way to overcome it.

There are two main ways to form a barrier - either the complete closure of the speech organs, or their convergence to the distance of the gap. Thus, stop and fricative consonants are distinguished.

When articulating slotted air, a stream of exhaled air exits in the middle of the oral cavity, producing friction on the contiguous organs of speech: h'], [w], [w¯'], [g], [g¯'], [j], [x], [x'].

The pronunciation of stop consonants includes the moment of complete closure of the organs of speech, when the exit of the air stream to the outside is blocked. The method of overcoming the bond may be different, depending on what further division into classes is carried out.

Stopping plosives involve removing the barrier with a strong and short push of air, which quickly comes out: [p], [p '], [b], [b '], [t], [t '], [d], [d' ], [k], [k'], [g], [g'].

In stop affricates, the organs of speech that are tightly adjacent to each other do not sharply open, but only slightly open, forming a gap for air to escape: [ts], [h '].

Closing nasals do not require breaking the bow at all. Thanks to the lowered palatine curtain, the air does not rush to the place of the shutter, but freely exits through the nasal cavity: [m], [m '], [n], [n '].

When the occlusive lateral [l] and [l ’] are formed, the air also does not come into contact with the barrier, bypassing it along its own trajectory - between the lowered side of the tongue and the cheeks.

In some teaching aids, nasal and lateral sounds are described as stop-passing.

Stop trembling are characterized by periodic closing and opening of the organs of speech, that is, their vibration: [p], [p '].

Sometimes trembling is considered not as a variety of stops, but as a separate, third type of consonants along with stops and fricatives.

Phonetic alternations of consonants in place and method of formation. Phonetic alternations of consonants with zero sound

The place and method of formation of consonants can only change as a result of the influence of sounds on each other.

Before anterior palatine noisy teeth are replaced by anterior palatals. There is a positional similarity at the place of formation: [with] a game with a game - [sh sh] slaughter with a fur coat (i.e. [s] // [sh] in front of the anterior palatine), [with] a game with a game - [sh: 'h' ]championship with a championship (i.e. [s] // [w:'] before the anterior palate).

Explosive consonants before fricatives and affricates alternate with affricates, i.e. with closer articulatory sounds. Assimilation is carried out according to the method of formation: o [t] play to win back - o [cs] to fall asleep (i.e. [t] // [c] in front of the slot).

In many cases, several signs of consonants undergo a positional change at once. So, in the above example with the championship, the assimilation touched not only the sign of the place of formation, but also the sign of softness. And in the case of [d] playing under the game - according to [h' w: '] some under the cheek ([d] // [h '] in front of the deaf, soft, prepalatine, slit [w: ']) there was an assimilation for all four signs - deafness, softness, place and method of formation.

In the examples le [g] ok is light - light [x'k '] y light, soft´[g] ok is soft - me´[h'k'] y soft, where [g] alternates with [x'], and not with [k'] before [k'], there is a dissimilarity (dissimilation) of sounds according to the method of formation. At the same time, dissimilation (dissimilation) on this basis is combined with likeness (assimilation) in deafness and softness.

In addition to the phenomena described above, in Russian speech, phonetic alternation of consonants with zero sound can be recorded.

Usually [t] / [t '] and [d] / [d '] are not pronounced between dental, between [p] and [h '], between [p] and [c], it also does not sound [l] before [ nc]. So, the loss of a consonant is presented in the following combinations:

Stl: happy [th’]e happiness - happy happy, i.e. [T'] // ;

Stn: place [t] about places - local local, i.e. [T] // ;

Zdn: uéz[d]a uyezd - uézny uézdny, i.e. [d] //;

Zdts: uz [d]á bridle - under the bridles´ under the bridles, i.e. [d] //; gollán [d'] Dutch Dutch - Dutch Dutch, i.e. [d'] // ;

Rdts: ser[d’]echko heart - heart heart, i.e. [d'] // ;

Rdch: ser [d ’] echko heart - serchishko heart, i.e. [d'] // ;

Lnts: só [l] little sun little sun - sun sun, i.e. [l] // .

Akin to the specified phenomenon and the loss of [j]. It occurs when an iota is preceded by a vowel, and then followed by [and] or [b]: mo mine - [mai´] mine, i.e. [j] // .

Please note that not a single phonetic phenomenon associated with the assimilation of consonants in place / method of formation or with the fact of their replacement by zero sound is indicated in the letter. According to the morphematic (phonological) principle of Russian orthography, positionally alternating sounds are written with one letter in accordance with the check. Example [w] with a fur coat is written as with a fur coat, because have [with] play with play. The unpronounceable consonant in happy happy is graphically restored on the basis of the test happy [th’]e happiness, etc.

Syllable

A syllable may consist of one or more sounds. In each syllable, only one syllabic sound is distinguished, which forms the core, the top of the syllable. The rest of the sounds are adjacent to it - non-syllabic.

The types of syllables are characterized by initial and final sounds. According to the initial sound, syllables can be:

1) covered - starting with a non-syllable sound: [ru-ká] hand,

2) naked - starting with a syllabic sound: [á-ist] stork.

According to the final sound, syllables are divided into:
1) closed - ending in a non-syllable: [bal-kon] balcony;

2) open - ending in a syllabic sound: [vá-z] vase.

In modern linguistics, there are several definitions of a syllable. The definition of a syllable as a set of sounds of different degrees of sonority (sonority) is widespread - from less sonorous to more sonorous. The syllabic sound is considered the most sonorous, it represents the top of the syllable. With this understanding, the syllable is built according to the law of ascending sonority.

This law predetermines the following features of syllable division.

1. Non-finite syllables strive for openness. Most open syllables: [on-ý-k] science, [a-pa-zdá-l] late.

2. Closed syllables in a word can appear only in three cases:

1) at the end of the word: [pla-tók] kerchief, [rash:’ót] calculation;

2) at the junction of sonorous and noisy in a non-initial syllable. Sonorant departs to the previous syllable, noisy - to the next: [zam-sh] suede, [bal-kon] balcony;

3) at the junction of [j] and any consonant. The sound [j] goes to the previous syllable, the consonant goes to the next one: [vaj-ná] war, [máj-kъ] T-shirt.

When learning to divide words into syllables, one should remember that the rules do not fully correspond to linguistic facts and still remain arbitrary, significant primarily within the framework of a specific theory.

In conclusion, we note that phonetic syllables often do not coincide with the morphemic structure of the word and the rules of hyphenation in writing.
Compare:
Phonetic syllables Morphemic articulation Word hyphenation
[ma-jór] major may-or
[sa-glá-sn] co-voice-n-a co-voice-on / sog-la-sleep

The consonants of the Russian language in most cases are opposed to each other on the basis of hardness-softness: [b] - [b "], [p] - [p"], [c] - [c"], [f] - [f" ], [d] - [d "], [t] - [t "], [l] - [l "], [m] - [m "], [n] - [n"], [r] - [p "], [s] - [s"], [g] - [g "], [x] - [x"], [k] - [k"]. For example: [brother] - [brother "] - brother - take; [vos] - [in "os] - cart - carried; [gave] - [gave "] - gave - distance; [nose] - [n" os] - nose - carried [rat] - [r "at] - glad - row; [became] - [became "] - became - steel.

When soft consonants are formed, an additional movement is added to the main sound-forming movement: the middle part of the back of the tongue rises up to the hard palate, as with a sound, as a result of which the consonant acquires a special sound, which is conditionally called softness.

A number of textbooks indicate that they do not have pairs on the basis of "hardness-softness" and are only hard: [g], [c], only soft: [h "], But another point of view is also common in linguistic literature. See tasks No. 4, 5, 10, 11 (clause 1.4).

Tasks with comments

Task number 1. How many letters O and sounds [o] in this sentence? Explain why?

All the bells are ringing.

Task number 2. Determine what sound is pronounced in place of the letter And in the following words. What phonetic process caused such changes? Remember that in the Old Russian language the sound [and] appeared after the sound [b] (from the game, friend Ivan), which was later lost. Caught after a solid consonant, [and] began to be pronounced like [s]: [at games "], [druk Yva" n] 1.

Play - began to play, sparks - from sparks, Vitaly - to Italy, news - no news, hut - to hut, June - in June, engineer - about engineer.

Task number 3. Guess the riddle. How many times does the sound occur [w] And what letters does it stand for? How many times does the sound occur in this riddle [P] And what letters does it stand for?

They beat the boy on his cap so that he lives in a piece of wood.

Task number 4. Why do you think in words life, live, lie down, live, silence, tire, hiss, etc. after [g], [w] is written And, and pronounced [s].

Considering the answer, keep in mind that the sounds [zh], [sh] in the Old Russian language were soft until the 15th century, and then hardened.

Task number 5. Read the statements of L.L. Kasatkin and M.V. Panov and decide whether the textbook data correspond to the phenomena of the Russian language at the present stage?

“The softness [zh’] lasted the longest in combination with another [zh’], i.e. in combination [zh’zh ’]. But even in this combination, it began to be lost long ago, first seizing a position at the junction of morphemes and later penetrating inside the root. Pronunciation [zh’zh’] in modern Russian literary language- the last remnants of the former softness of the voiced hissing, which is supplanted by the pronunciation [lj] already in the roots "1.

“... the repression [w’] is far from over and its further fate has not been completely decided (there may be surprises)” 2 .

Task number 6. Read the words, write down their pronunciation in transcription, pronounce and write down the sounds in reverse order. What words did you get?

Flax, lei, forehead, hatch, current, walked, shei, cube, ice.

Task number 7. Transcribe the text. Highlight the consonants and give them a complete description of the place and method of formation. Describe stressed and unstressed vowels by row, rise and labialization. (For reference, you can use tables No. 2 “Characteristics of vowels by place of formation” and No. 3 “Characteristics of consonants by place and method of formation”).

Sample: [m'i "lyj']

[m '] - consonant, sonorant, stop-passing, nasal, labial-labial, soft;

[and] - vowel, stressed, front row, upper rise, non-labialized;

[l] - consonant, sonorant, stop-passing, lateral, anterior-lingual, dental, hard;

[s] - vowel, unstressed, middle row, upper rise, non-labialized;

- consonant, sonorant, fricative, midlingual, midpalatal, soft.

I don't like your irony.

Leave her outdated and not alive.

And you and I, who loved so dearly,

Still the rest of the feeling preserved, -

It's too early for us to indulge in it.

(N.A. Nekrasov)

Task number 8. Compose words according to the given characteristics of sounds. Numbering reflects the sequence of sounds in a word.

I. (1) Consonant, noisy, stop, posterior lingual, posterior palatine, voiced, hard; (2) vowel, back row, high rise, labialized, stressed; (3) consonant, noisy, fricative, anterior-lingual, dental, deaf, soft.

II. (1) Consonant, sonorant, fricative, midlingual, midpalatal, soft; (2) vowel, back row, upper rise, labialized, unstressed; (3) consonant, sonorant, occlusive, anterior-lingual, lateral, solid; (4) vowel, middle row, low rise, non-labialized, stressed.

III. (1) Consonant, sonorant, occlusive, tremulous, anterior-lingual, palatine-dental, soft; (2) vowel, front row, mid-rise, unlabialized, stressed; (3) consonant, noisy, explosive, labial, deaf, hard; (4) vowel… Do the following for yourself.

Task number 9. Transcribe the words. What phonetic processes take place in them?

Sample:

Birch [b'i \ e 1 R˚ ’ 2 ˙o "s 3 ka] -

1)[i \ e] - reduction of a vowel in a weak position of the first pre-stressed syllable after a soft consonant;

2)contact accommodation, regressive on the basis of labialization (roundness): the consonant [p '] adapts to the pronunciation of the vowel [o]; in parallel with this process, the vowel accommodates the consonant: after a soft [p '], the vowel at the beginning of its duration moves forward and upwards - the accommodation is contact, progressive;

3)assimilation is partial, contact, regressive on the basis of voiced-deafness:the consonant [h] (cf.: take [h]a) is likened to the sound [k] following it on the basis of the absence of a voice (deafened).

Heart [s' 1 ˙e "r 2 q 3 ] –

1) accommodation: the vowel adapts to the softness of the consonant and moves forward and upward at the beginning of its duration (excursion);

2) dieresis - throwing out the sound [d] in combination [rdts] (unpronounceable consonant);

3) [b] - reduction of a vowel in a weak position of a final stressed open syllable.

Skirt, late, request, sew, joyful, mowing, light, abyss.

Task number 10. Transcribe word combinations. Where necessary, mark the voiced allophones of phonemes.<ц> 1 ,<ч>,<х>like sounds [dz], [d'zh '], [γ]. Please note that in a number of textbooks, the opposition of consonants is determined only on the basis of sonority-deafness and hardness-softness. Some consonants are characterized as unpaired for some reason. As always, voiced sounds are defined, denoted in writing by the letters L, M, N, R, Y; as always deaf - X, C, H, W; as always soft - Ch, Shch. This is due to the fact that these sounds cannot have opposite signs in a position with a vowel. For example, in the word HERON [ca′ pl'a]the sound [ts] is characterized as a solid unpaired consonant, deaf unpaired, since there are no examples in the Russian language in which, in a position with a vowel [ts], it would have signs of sonority and softness.

The baby fell asleep - the baby screamed, the well in the steppe - the well behind the house, the doctor listened - the ball is green, the violinist has already performed - the violinist has performed, the sunflower has blossomed - the sunflower has ripened.

Task number 11. Pay attention to how you pronounce the following words and phrases. Transcribe them. What phonetic processes take place in the place of the selected letters? Do pairs of softness-hardness have consonants [h ’] and [ts]?

ABOUT t w ubi, by l w slaughter, by dsh scrap, oh tsh was able; ma t C hedgehog, pya tc I (the imperative mood of the verb back away), five b c seconds, by d s enom.

When performing this exercise, pay attention to table No. 3 “Characteristics of consonants by place and method of formation” and information from university textbooks:

“Consonant sounds form pairs according to hardness-softness: [b] - [b '], [c] - [c '], [g] - [g '], [d] - [d '], [h] - [h '], etc. Sound [h ']soft, it also has a solid pair - the sound [h], which happens before [w]: better [h] she. The sound [ts] is hard, and its soft pair is[q '], which is pronounced, for example, in place of [t '] before [c ']: five [q '] sya - five" 1.

Task number 12. Transcribe pairs of words and distribute them into groups: historical alternations, positional changes (live phonetic alternations). Sample execution:

Table

Historical alternations	Positional changes
mow - kosh [kaWith" it" - kaw y]	cow - cow [karoV a - carof ka]

Remember that historical alternations cannot be explained in terms of the current state of the system, they are due to historical laws. For example: no friend - be friends - friends. These alternations are historical. Changes that at the present stage of the functioning of the language can be characterized as processes of assimilation, dissimilation, accommodation, diaeresis, etc., are positional.

Cow - cow, mow - koshu, forehead - forehead, bridge - bridge, girlfriend - friends, circle - mug, Zoya - with Zoya, wear - wear, birch - birch, frost - frost, burn - burn, hand - pen, give - give, threaten - threaten, carry - drive, fungus - fungus, pelvis - pelvis.

Task number 13. In the given words, correct spelling errors that were provoked by incorrect pronunciation.

Compromise, fix, slip, mock, unprecedented, meticulous, trolleybus, tramway, excavator, escalator, incident, institution, underline, future, paluver, drushlag.

Task number 14. In Russian linguistics, the first attempts to determine the laws of syllable division were made by V.K. Trediakovsky. More than two centuries have passed since then. Is there currently a unified consistent theory of the syllable division? As a reference, you can use the statements of leading linguists:

"The theory of the syllable belongs to the most difficult problems of phonetics" (L.V. Shcherba) 1 .

“The definition of a syllable presents great difficulties, although every speaker can pronounce it by syllables” (A.A. Reformatsky) 2 .

“Although in practice the division of speech into syllables does not present great difficulties, theoretically the question of the essence of the syllable and syllable division is one of the most difficult issues of phonetics” (LI Zhiteneva) 3 .

“It is practically easy to catch by ear the number of syllables in a word or in another short piece of text, even if this is a word or text of a language unfamiliar to us. It is more difficult to catch the exact place of the syllable division, i.e. a boundary between two adjacent syllables. But even more difficult are the theoretical problems associated with the syllable and syllabic division ... the nature of the syllable and the division of speech into syllables is the subject of a long dispute between scientists ”(Yu.S. Maslov) 1 .

“What is the acoustic nature of the syllabic sound? Where is the boundary between syllables in a word? There are no definitive answers to these questions yet” (A.M. Kamchatnov, N.A. Nikolina) 2 .

In this chapter:

§1. Sound

Sound is the smallest unit of sounding speech. Each word has a sound shell, consisting of sounds. The sound is related to the meaning of the word. Different words and word forms have different sound design. The sounds themselves don't matter, but they perform important role: they help us to distinguish:

words: [house] - [volume], [volume] - [there], [m'el] - [m'el']
word forms: [house] - [lady´] - [do´ ma].

Note:

words written in square brackets are given in transcription.

§2. Transcription

Transcription is a special recording system that displays the sound. Symbols accepted in transcription:

Square brackets, which are the designation of transcription.

[ ´ ] - stress. The stress is placed if the word consists of more than one syllable.

[b '] - the icon next to the consonant indicates its softness.

[j] and [th] are different designations for the same sound. Since this sound is soft, these symbols are often used with an additional softness designation:, [th ']. On this site, the designation [th ’] is adopted, which is more familiar to most guys. The soft icon will be used to get you used to the fact that this sound is soft.

There are other symbols as well. They will be introduced gradually, as you become familiar with the topic.

§3. Vowels and consonants

Sounds are divided into vowels and consonants.
They have a different nature. They are pronounced and perceived differently, as well as behave differently in speech and play different roles in it.

Vowels- these are sounds, during the pronunciation of which air freely passes through the oral cavity, without encountering obstacles in its path. Pronunciation (articulation) is not focused in one place: the quality of vowels is determined by the shape of the oral cavity, which acts as a resonator. When articulating vowels, the vocal cords in the larynx work. They are close, tense and vibrate. Therefore, when pronouncing vowels, we hear a voice. Vowels can be drawn. They can be screamed at. And if you put your hand to your throat, then the work of the vocal cords when pronouncing vowels can be felt, felt with your hand. Vowels are the basis of the syllable, they organize it. There are as many syllables in a word as there are vowels. For example: He- 1 syllable, she- 2 syllables, Guys- 3 syllables, etc. There are words that consist of one vowel sound. For example, unions: and, a and interjections: Oh!, Ah!, Woo! and others.

In a word, vowels can be in stressed and unstressed syllables.
stressed syllable one in which the vowel is pronounced clearly and appears in its basic form.
IN unstressed syllables vowels are modified, pronounced differently. Changing vowels in unstressed syllables is called reduction.

There are six stressed vowels in Russian: [a], [o], [y], [s], [i], [e].

Remember:

Words are possible that can only consist of vowels, but consonants are also necessary.
There are many more consonants in Russian than vowels.

§4. Method of formation of consonants

Consonants- these are sounds, during the pronunciation of which the air meets an obstacle in its path. In Russian, there are two types of barriers: a gap and a bow - these are the two main ways of forming consonants. The type of barrier determines the nature of the consonant sound.

gap is formed, for example, when pronouncing sounds: [s], [s], [w], [g]. The tip of the tongue only approaches the lower or upper teeth. Slotted consonants can be pulled: [s-s-s-s], [sh-sh-sh-sh] . As a result, you will hear the noise well: when pronouncing [c] - whistling, and when pronouncing [w] - hissing.

bow, The second type of articulation of consonants is formed when the organs of speech are closed. The air flow abruptly overcomes this barrier, the sounds are short, energetic. That is why they are called explosive. You won't be able to pull them. These are, for example, the sounds [p], [b], [t], [d] . Such articulation is easier to feel, feel.

So, when pronouncing consonants, noise is heard. The presence of noise is a hallmark of consonants.

§5. Voiced and voiceless consonants

According to the ratio of noise and voice, consonants are divided into voiced and deaf.
When pronouncing voiced consonants, both voice and noise are heard, and deaf- just noise.
Deaf people cannot be spoken loudly. They cannot be shouted.

Compare words: house And cat. Each word has 1 vowel and 2 consonants. The vowels are the same, but the consonants are different: [d] and [m] are voiced, and [k] and [t] are deaf. Voiced-deafness is the most important sign of consonants in Russian.

voiced-deafness pairs:[b] - [n], [h] - [c] and others. There are 11 such pairs.

Pairs for deafness-voicedness: [p] and [b], [p "] and [b"], [f] and [c], [f "] and [c"], [k] and [g], [k"] and [g"], [t] and [d], [t"] and [d"], [w] and [g], [s] and [h], [s "] and [ h"].

But there are sounds that do not have a pair on the basis of sonority - deafness. For example, the sounds [p], [l], [n], [m], [th '] do not have a voiceless pair, but [c] and [h '] do not have a voiced pair.

Unpaired in deafness-voicedness

Voiced unpaired:[r], [l], [n], [m], [th "], [r"], [l"], [n"], [m"] . They are also called sonorous.

What does this term mean? This is a group of consonants (9 in total) that have pronunciation features: when they are pronounced in the oral cavity, barriers also arise, but such that the air stream, passing through the barrier, forms only a slight noise; air passes freely through the opening in the nasal or oral cavity. Sonorants are pronounced with the help of a voice with the addition of a slight noise. Many teachers do not use this term, but everyone should know that these voiced unpaired sounds.

Sonorants have two important features:

1) they are not deafened, like paired voiced consonants, before deaf and at the end of a word;

2) there is no voicing of paired deaf consonants before them (i.e., the position in front of them is strong in deafness-voicedness, as well as before vowels). For more information about positional changes, see .

Deaf unpaired:[c], [h "], [w":], [x], [x "].

What is the easiest way to remember lists of voiced and voiceless consonants?

Phrases will help memorize the lists of voiced and deaf consonants:

Oh, we didn't forget each other!(Here only voiced consonants)

Foka, do you want to eat a soup?(Here only voiceless consonants)

True, these phrases do not include hardness-softness pairs. But usually people can easily figure out that not only hard [s] is voiced, but soft [s"] too, not only [b], but also [b"], etc.

§6. Hard and soft consonants

Consonants differ not only in deafness-voicedness, but also in hardness-softness.
Hardness-softness- the second most important sign of consonants in Russian.

Soft consonants differ from solid special position of the language. When pronouncing hard ones, the entire body of the tongue is pulled back, and when pronouncing soft ones, it is shifted forward, while the middle part of the tongue is raised. Compare: [m] - [m ’], [h] - [h ’]. Voiced soft ones sound higher than hard ones.

Many Russian consonants form pairs of hardness-softness: [b] - [b '], [ c] - [ c '] and others. There are 15 such pairs.

Pairs by hardness-softness: [b] and [b "], [m] and [m"], [p] and [p "], [c] and [c"], [f] and [f"] , [h] and [h "], [s] and [s"], [d] and [d"], [t] and [t"], [n] and [n"], [l] and [l "], [p] and [p "], [k] and [k"], [g] and [g "], [x] and [x"].

But there are sounds that do not have a pair on the basis of hardness-softness. For example, the sounds [zh], [w], [c] do not have a soft pair, but [y '] and [h '] do not have a hard pair.

Unpaired in hardness-softness

Solid unpaired: [w], [w], [c] .

Soft unpaired: [th"], [h"], [w":].

§7. The designation of the softness of consonants in writing

Let's digress from pure phonetics. Consider a practically important question: how is the softness of consonants indicated in writing?

There are 36 consonants in Russian, including 15 pairs of hardness-softness, 3 unpaired hard and 3 unpaired soft consonants. There are only 21 consonants. How can 21 letters represent 36 sounds?

For this, different methods are used:

iotated letters e, yo, yu, i after consonants except sh, w And c, unpaired in hardness-softness, indicate that these consonants are soft, for example: aunt- [t’o´ t’a], uncle -[Yes Yes] ;
letter And after consonants except sh, w And c. Consonants denoted by letters sh, w And c, unpaired hard. Examples of words with a vowel And: no´ tki- [n’i´ tk’i], sheet- [l'ist], Cute- [Cute'] ;
letter b, after consonants except sh, w, after which the soft sign is an indicator of the grammatical form. Examples of soft words : request- [proz'ba], stranded- [m'el'], distance- [gave '].

Thus, the softness of consonants in writing is transmitted not by special letters, but by combinations of consonant letters with letters i, e, e, u, i And b. Therefore, when parsing, I advise you to pay special attention to neighboring letters after consonants.

Discussing the problem of interpretation

School textbooks say that [w] and [w ’] - unpaired in hardness-softness. How so? After all, we hear that the sound [w ’] is a soft analogue of the sound [w].
When I studied at school myself, I could not understand why? Then my son went to school. He had the same question. It appears in all the guys who are thoughtful about learning.

Bewilderment arises because school textbooks do not take into account that the sound [w ’] is also long, but the hard [w] is not. Pairs are sounds that differ in only one feature. And [w] and [w ’] - two. Therefore, [w] and [w’] are not pairs.

For adults and high school students.

In order to maintain correctness, it is necessary to change the school tradition of transcribing the sound [sh ']. It seems that it is easier for children to use one more additional sign than to face an illogical, unclear and misleading statement. Everything is simple. So that generation after generation does not rack their brains, it is necessary, finally, to show that a soft hissing sound is long.

There are two icons for this in linguistic practice:

1) superscript above the sound;
2) colon.

The use of an accent mark is inconvenient because it is not provided by the character set that can be used in computer typing. This means that the following possibilities remain: the use of a colon [w':] or a grapheme denoting the letter [w'] . I think the first option is preferable. Firstly, at first, guys often mix sounds and letters. The use of a letter in transcription will create a basis for such confusion, provoke an error. Secondly, the guys now start learning early foreign languages. And the [:] sign, when used to indicate the length of a sound, is already familiar to them. Thirdly, transcription with a colon [:] for longitude will perfectly convey the features of the sound. [w ':] - soft and long, both features that make up its difference from the sound [w] are presented clearly, simply and unambiguously.

What advice would you give to children who are now studying according to generally accepted textbooks? You need to understand, comprehend, and then remember that in fact the sounds [w] and [w ':] do not form a pair of hardness-softness. And I advise you to transcribe them as your teacher requires.

§8. Place of formation of consonants

Consonants differ not only in the signs you already know:

deafness-voicedness,
hardness-softness,
method of formation: bow-slit.

The last, fourth sign is important: place of education.
The articulation of some sounds is carried out by the lips, others - by the tongue, its different parts. So, the sounds [p], [p '], [b], [b '], [m], [m '] - labial-labial, [c], [c '], [f], [f ' ] - labio-dental, all the rest - lingual: front-lingual [t], [t '], [d], [d '], [n], [n '], [s], [s '], [s ], [h '], [w], [g], [w ':], [h '], [c], [l], [l '], [p], [p '] , middle lingual [th '] and back lingual [k], [k '], [g], [g '], [x], [x '].

§9. Positional changes in sounds

1. Strong-weak positions for vowels. Positional vowel changes. Reduction

People do not use spoken sounds in isolation. They don't need it.
Speech is a sound stream, but a stream organized in a certain way. The conditions in which a particular sound appears are important. The beginning of a word, the end of a word, the stressed syllable, the unstressed syllable, the position before the vowel, the position before the consonant - these are all different positions. We will figure out how to distinguish between strong and weak positions, first for vowels, and then for consonants.

Strong position one in which the sounds are not subject to positionally determined changes and appear in their main form. A strong position is distinguished for groups of sounds, for example: for vowels, this is a position in a stressed syllable. And for consonants, for example, the position before vowels is strong.

For vowels, the strong position is stressed, and the weak position is unstressed.
In unstressed syllables, vowels undergo changes: they are shorter and not pronounced as distinctly as under stress. This change in vowels in a weak position is called reduction. Due to reduction, fewer vowels are distinguished in the weak position than in the strong position.

Sounds corresponding to stressed [o] and [a], after hard consonants in a weak, unstressed position, sound the same. Normative in the Russian language is recognized as "akanye", i.e. nondiscrimination ABOUT And A in an unstressed position after hard consonants.

under stress: [house] - [lady] - [o] ≠ [a].
without accent: [d A ma´] -at home´ - [d A la´] -dala´ - [a] = [a].

Sounds corresponding to stressed [a] and [e], after soft consonants in a weak, unstressed position, sound the same. The normative pronunciation is "hiccups", i.e. nondiscrimination E And A in unstressed position after soft consonants.

under stress: [m'ech '] - [m'ach '] - [e] ≠ [a].
without stress: [m'ich'o´ m] - sword´ m -[m'ich'o´ m] - ball´ m - [and] = [and].
But what about the vowels [and], [s], [y]? Why was nothing said about them? The fact is that these vowels in a weak position are only subjected to quantitative reduction: they are pronounced more briefly, weakly, but their quality does not change. That is, as for all vowels, an unstressed position for them is a weak position, but for a schoolchild these vowels in an unstressed position do not present a problem.

[ly´ zhy], [in _lu´ zhu], [n'i´ t'i] - both in strong and weak positions, the quality of vowels does not change. Both under stress and in an unstressed position, we clearly hear: [s], [y], [and] and write the letters with which these sounds are usually denoted.

Discussing the problem of interpretation

What vowel sounds are actually pronounced in unstressed syllables after hard consonants?

Performing phonetic analysis and transcribing words, many guys express bewilderment. In long polysyllabic words, after solid consonants, it is not the sound [a] that is pronounced, as school textbooks say, but something else.

They are right.

Compare the pronunciation of the words: Moscow - Muscovites. Repeat each word several times and listen for the vowel in the first syllable. With a word Moscow everything is simple. We pronounce: [maskva´] - the sound [a] is clearly audible. And the word Muscovites? In accordance with literary norm, in all syllables, except for the first syllable before the stress, as well as the positions of the beginning and end of the word, we do not pronounce [a], but a different sound: less distinct, less clear, more like [s] than [a]. In the scientific tradition, this sound is denoted by the icon [ъ]. So, we really say: [malako´] - milk ,[harasho´ ] - Fine ,[kalbasa´] - sausage.

I understand that by giving this material in textbooks, the authors tried to simplify it. Simplified. But many guys good hearing who hear clearly that the sounds in the following examples are different, cannot understand why the teacher and the textbook insist that these sounds are the same. In fact:

[V A Yes ] - water´ -[V b d’other’] - water ´ th:[a]≠[b]
[dr A wa´ ] - firewood´ -[dr b v’ino´ th’] - wood fired:[a]≠[b]

A special subsystem is the realization of vowels in unstressed syllables after sibilants. But in the school course, this material is not presented at all in most textbooks.

What vowels are actually pronounced in unstressed syllables after soft consonants?

I have the greatest sympathy for the guys who study from textbooks offered on the spot A,E, ABOUT after soft consonants, hear and translate the sound “and, prone to e” in transcription. I consider it fundamentally wrong to give schoolchildren as the only option the outdated pronunciation norm - “ekanye”, which is much less common today than “hiccups”, mainly among very elderly people. Guys, feel free to write in an unstressed position in the first syllable before the stress in place A And E- [And].

After soft consonants in other unstressed syllables, except for the position of the end of the word, we pronounce a short weak sound resembling [and] and denoted as [ь]. Say the words eight, nine and listen to yourself. We pronounce: [vo´ s'm '] - [b], [d'e´ v't '] - [b].

Do not confuse:

Transcription marks are one thing, but letters are quite another.
The transcription sign [ъ] denotes a vowel after hard consonants in unstressed syllables, except for the first syllable before stress.
The letter ъ is a solid sign.
The transcription sign [ь] denotes a vowel after soft consonants in unstressed syllables, except for the first syllable before stress.
The letter b is a soft sign.
Transcription signs, unlike letters, are given in square brackets.

end of word- special position. It shows clearing of vowels after soft consonants. The system of unstressed endings is a special phonetic subsystem. In her E And A differ:

Building[heel n’i’e] - building[building´ n’i’a], me´ nie[mn’e´ n’iy’e] - me´ nia[mn’e´ n’iy’a], mo´ re[mo´ r'e] - seas[mo´ r'a], vo´ la[vo´ l'a] - at will[na_vo´ l'e]. Keep this in mind when doing phonetic parsing of words.

Check:

How does your teacher require you to designate unstressed vowels. If he uses a simplified transcription system, that's okay: it's widely accepted. Just do not be surprised that you really hear different sounds in an unstressed position.

2. Strong-weak positions for consonants. Positional changes of consonants

For all consonants without exception, the strong position is position before a vowel. Before vowels, consonants appear in their basic form. Therefore, when doing phonetic analysis, do not be afraid to make a mistake characterizing a consonant in a strong position: [dacha] - country house,[t'l'iv'i´ zar] - TV,[s’ino´ n’im] - synonyms,[b'ir'o´ zy] - birches,[karz "and´ us] - baskets. All consonants in these examples are before vowels, i.e. in a strong position.

Strong positions in voicelessness:

before vowels: [there] - there,[ladies] - ladies,
before unpaired voiced [p], [p '], [l], [l '], [n], [n '], [m], [m '], [d ']: [dl'a] - For,[tl'a] - aphid,
Before [in], [in ']: [own'] - mine,[ringing] - ringing.

Remember:

In a strong position, voiced and deaf consonants do not change their quality.

Weak positions in deafness-voicedness:

in front of pairs for deafness-voicedness: [weak tk’y] - sweet,[zu´ pk'i] - teeth.
before deaf unpaired ones: [apkhva´ t] - girth, [fhot] - entrance.
at the end of a word: [zoop] - tooth,[dup] - oak.

Positional changes of consonants according to deafness-voicedness

In weak positions, consonants are modified: positional changes occur with them. Voiced ones become deaf, i.e. deafened, and the deaf - voiced, i.e. voiced. Positional changes are observed only in paired consonants.

Stunning-voicing of consonants

Voiced stunning occurs in positions:

in front of paired deaf people: [fsta´ v’it’] - V become,
at the end of a word: [clat] - treasure.

Voicing of the deaf happens in position:

before paired voiced: [kaz'ba´] - to With bba´

Strong positions in hardness-softness:

before vowels: [mat'] - mother,[m'at'] - crush,
at the end of a word: [out] - out,[out'] - stink,
before labial-labial: [b], [b '], [n], [n '], [m], [m '] and back-lingual: [k], [k '], [g], [g' ], [x[, [x'] for sounds [s], [s'], [s], [s'], [t], [t'], [d], [d'], [n ], [n'], [r], [r']: [sa´ n'k'i] - Sa´ nks(born pad.), [s´ ank'i] - sled,[bu´ lka] - bu´ lka,[bu´ l'kat'] - boo' lkat,
all positions for sounds [l] and [l ’]: [forehead] - forehead,[pal'ba] - firing.

Remember:

In a strong position, hard and soft consonants do not change their quality.

Weak positions in hardness-softness and positional changes in hardness-softness.

before soft [t '], [d'] for consonants [c], [h], which are necessarily softened:, [z'd'es'],
before [h '] and [w ':] for [n], which is necessarily softened: [by´ n'h'ik] - donut,[ka´ m'n'sh': ik] - bricklayer.

Remember:

In a number of positions today, both soft and hard pronunciation is possible:

before soft front lingual [n '], [l '] for front lingual consonants [c], [h]: snow -[s'n'ek] and, make angry -[z’l’it’] and [zl’it’]
before soft anterior lingual, [h ’] for anterior lingual [t], [d] - lift -[pad’n’a´ t ’] and [padn’a´ t’] , take away -[at’n’a´ t’] and [atn’a´ t’]
before soft anterior lingual [t "], [d"], [s "], [s"] for anterior lingual [n]: vi´ ntik -[v'i´ n "t" ik] and [v'i´ nt'ik], pension -[p’e´ n’s’iy’a] and [p’e´ ns’iy’a]
before soft labials [c '], [f '], [b '], [n '], [m '] for labials: write in -[f "p" isa' t '] and [fp" is' at '], ri´ fme(dat. pad.) - [r'i´ f "m" e] and [r'i´ fm "e]

Remember:

In all cases, in a weak position, positional softening of consonants is possible.
Writing a soft sign with positional softening of consonants is a mistake.

Positional changes of consonants according to the features of the method and place of formation

Naturally, in the school tradition it is not customary to state the characteristics of sounds and the positional changes that occur with them in all details. But the general laws of phonetics need to be learned. Without this, it is difficult to do phonetic analyzes and complete test tasks. Therefore, below is a list of positionally determined changes in consonants according to the features of the method and place of formation. This material is a tangible help for those who want to avoid errors in phonetic parsing.

Assimilation of consonants

The logic is this: the Russian language is characterized by the likeness of sounds if they are similar in some way and at the same time are close.

Learn the list:

[c] and [w] → [w:] - sew

[h] and [g] → [g:] - compress

[s] and [h ’] - at the root of words → [w':] - happiness, account
- at the junction of morphemes and words → [w':h'] - comb, dishonest, with what (a preposition followed by a word is pronounced together, like one word)

[s] and [w':] → [w':] - split

[t] and [c] - in verb forms → [ts:] - smiles
- at the junction of prefix and root → [cs] - sleep

[t] and [ts] → [ts:] - unhook

[t] and [h’] → [h’:] - report

[t] and [t] and [w’:]←[c] and [h’] - Countdown

[d] and [w ':] ← [c] and [h '] - counting

Distinguishing consonants

Dissimilarity is a process positional change opposite to likeness.

[g] and [k '] → [x'k '] - easy

Simplifying consonant clusters

Learn the list:

vstv - [stv]: hello, feel
zdn - [zn]: late
zdts - [sc] : under the bridle
lnts - [nts]: Sun
NDC - [nc]: Dutch
ndsh - [nsh:] landscape
ntg - [ng]: x-ray
RDC - [rc]: heart
rdch - [rh']: heart
stl - [sl ']: happy
stn - [sn]: local

Pronunciation of groups of sounds:

In the forms of adjectives, pronouns, participles, there are letter combinations: wow, him. IN place G they pronounce [in]: him, beautiful, blue.
Avoid spelling. say the words him, blue, beautiful Right.

§10. Letters and sounds

Letters and sounds have different purposes and different nature. But these are comparable systems. Therefore, the types of relationships need to be known.

Types of ratio of letters and sounds:

A letter denotes a sound, such as vowels after hard consonants and consonants before vowels: weather.
The letter has no sound value of its own, for example b And b: mouse
The letter stands for two sounds, for example, iotized vowels e, yo, yu, i in positions:
- the beginning of a word
- after vowels,
- after the separation b And b.
The letter may indicate the sound and quality of the preceding sound, such as iotized vowels and And after soft consonants.
The letter may indicate the quality of the preceding sound, for example b in words shadow, stump, firing.
Two letters can represent one sound, often a long one: sew, squeeze, rush
Three letters correspond to one sound: smile - ts -[c:]

test of strength

Check your understanding of the contents of this chapter.

Final test

What determines the quality of a vowel sound?
- From the shape of the oral cavity at the moment of pronouncing the sound
- From the barrier formed by the organs of speech at the moment of pronouncing the sound
What is called reduction?
- pronunciation of vowels under stress
- pronouncing unstressed vowels
- special pronunciation of consonants
At what sounds does the air stream encounter an obstacle in its path: a bow or a gap?
- Vowels
- Consonants
Can voiceless consonants be pronounced loudly?
Are the vocal cords involved in the pronunciation of voiceless consonants?
How many pairs form consonants according to deafness-voicedness?
How many consonants do not have a deafness-voiced pair?
How many pairs do Russian consonants form according to hardness-softness?
How many consonants do not have a pair of hardness-softness?
How is the softness of consonants conveyed in writing?
- Special icons
- Letter combinations
What is the name of the position of the sound in the flow of speech, in which it appears in its basic form, without undergoing positional changes?
- Strong position
- Weak position
What sounds have strong and weak positions?
- Vowels
- Consonants
- All: both vowels and consonants

Right answers:

From the shape of the oral cavity at the moment of pronouncing the sound
pronouncing unstressed vowels
Consonants
Letter combinations
Strong position
All: both vowels and consonants

In contact with

Getting ready for the exam: Phonetics. Graphic arts. Orthoepy. Characteristics of consonants on the basis of "hardness-softness What is phonetic analysis

Russian language

PHONETICS. GRAPHIC ARTS

7. Consonant sounds

The concept of consonants.

Hard and soft consonants.

voiceless and voiced consonants.

Sonorous sounds.

Spelling of voiced and voiceless consonants in the root.

Spelling of unpronounceable consonants.

Designation of soft consonants in writing.

The sound composition of the Russian language

Intonation

Variety of sounds and their difference

onetic transcription

Organs of speech. Formation of vowels and consonants

Features of the pronunciation of vowels in unstressed positions (positional distribution of vowels)

Features of the distribution of unstressed vowels in a word can be presented in the form of a table.

onetic vowel alternations. Designation of unstressed vowels in writing

onetic alternations of consonants according to deafness / sonority. Designation of deafness / voiced consonants in writing

hard and soft consonants

onetic alternations of consonants in hardness/softness. Designation of hardness / softness of consonants in writing. Letters b and b

place and method of forming consonants

Phonetic alternations of consonants in place and method of formation. Phonetic alternations of consonants with zero sound

Syllable

Tasks with comments

§1. Sound

§2. Transcription

§3. Vowels and consonants

§4. Method of formation of consonants

§5. Voiced and voiceless consonants

§6. Hard and soft consonants

§7. The designation of the softness of consonants in writing

Discussing the problem of interpretation

§8. Place of formation of consonants

§9. Positional changes in sounds

1. Strong-weak positions for vowels. Positional vowel changes. Reduction

Discussing the problem of interpretation

2. Strong-weak positions for consonants. Positional changes of consonants

§10. Letters and sounds

test of strength

Final test

What determines the quality of a vowel sound?

What is called reduction?

At what sounds does the air stream encounter an obstacle in its path: a bow or a gap?

Can voiceless consonants be pronounced loudly?

Are the vocal cords involved in the pronunciation of voiceless consonants?

How many pairs form consonants according to deafness-voicedness?

How many consonants do not have a deafness-voiced pair?

How many pairs do Russian consonants form according to hardness-softness?

How many consonants do not have a pair of hardness-softness?

How is the softness of consonants conveyed in writing?

What is the name of the position of the sound in the flow of speech, in which it appears in its basic form, without undergoing positional changes?

What sounds have strong and weak positions?

Right answers:

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