Theories of interaction. Interaction theory Founder of role theory

ROLE THEORY

- English theory, role; German Rollentheory. A set of concepts and approaches that explain the relationship between the individual and society (J. Mead, R. Linton, J. (J.) Moreno, etc.). In T. r. usually there are several levels of analysis: sociological - the role as an element of social. cultures and structures; social psychology - the interaction of individuals with each other, the individual and the group (where the role turns out to be a set of common values, without which communication is unthinkable), the level of personality as a system where the interests of general psychology merge, social. psychology and sociology.

Antinazi. Encyclopedia of Sociology, 2009

See what "ROLE THEORY" is in other dictionaries:

role theory- socio-psychological theory of personality and interpersonal relations, based on the concept of social role. Represents them in terms of role-playing behavior. Dictionary practical psychologist. Moscow: AST, Harvest. S. Yu. Golovin. 1998 ... Great Psychological Encyclopedia

Role theory- - the theoretical notion that the bulk of observed everyday behavior is simply the fulfillment by people of their social ROLES. In the framework of the theory, the role is a set of expectations regarding actions corresponding to ... ... Social Work Dictionary

ROLE THEORY- - the socio-psychological theory of symbolic interactionism (J. Mead, G. Bloomer, E. Hoffman, M. Kuhn, etc.), considering the personality from the point of view. her social roles. Refers to sociological concepts, because it claims that ... ...

ROLE THEORY- a concept that arose to explain the relationship between the individual and the community. Formation of T.r. associated with the names of J. Mead, R. Linton, J. (J.) Moreno. In T.r. three levels of analysis can be distinguished: sociological, where the role is seen primarily as ... ... Russian sociological encyclopedia

Role theory- (Interactionism) The theory in social psychology, according to which people, depending on their status and their position in society, are characterized by one or another behavior. The concept of role was introduced in social psychology American sociologist and psychologist D. Mead, ... ... Dictionary of socio linguistic terms

Role theory- (interactionism) A theory in social psychology that studies the behavior of people, depending on their status and their position in society. The concept of role was introduced into social psychology by D. Mead. A set of roles associated with one status is called a role ... ... General linguistics. Sociolinguistics: Dictionary-Reference

ROLE THEORY- English. theory, role; German Rollentheory. A set of concepts and approaches that explain the relationship between the individual and society (J. Mead, R. Linton, J. (J.) Moreno, etc.). In T. r. usually there are several levels of analysis: the sociological role as ... ... Dictionary in sociology

role theory (interactionism)- A theory in social psychology that studies the behavior of people, depending on their status and their position in society. The concept of role was introduced into social psychology by D. Mead. A set of roles associated with one status is called a role set ... Dictionary of linguistic terms T.V. Foal

role theory (J. Mead and others)- theories about the role behavior of people ... encyclopedic Dictionary in psychology and pedagogy

SOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY OF ROLES- a theory that describes and explains the role behavior of people in society and in direct communication with each other ... Glossary of terms for psychological counseling

Books

• The Theory of Castes and Roles, Alex Krol. A revolutionary book in which the author divides society into castes and describes the roles of people in them. Castes determine the level of freedom and security of each person. Slaves, officials, gendarmes, ...

Role theory

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George Herbert Meade

American philosopher, sociologist, representative of the Chicago School of Sociology, one of the founders of symbolic interactionism.

He developed his idea of ​​society as built on the exchange of gestures and symbols: interactions are carried out through language, through the exchange of gestures, symbols. Meaningful symbols make it easier for people to imagine the consequences of their behavior from the point of view of others and adapt more easily to their expectations. The process of accepting a role assumes that the individual, through imagination, puts himself in the place of the person with whom the communication is carried out. Through the adoption of a role, individuals develop a "self" - the ability of people to represent themselves as objects of their own thought, which ensures the transformation of the external social control into self-control.

• Mead, J.G. "Mind, Self and Society" (1934)
• Mead J.G. "Philosophy of Action" (1938)
• Mead J. G. Selected: Sat. translations / RAS. INION. Center for social scientific-inform. research.

• 1. I (I) - this is what I think about others and about myself, this is my inner world.
• 2. Me (Me) - this is what, in my opinion, others think about me, this is my external social shell, as I imagine it. An individual, according to Mead, develops self-awareness at the moment when he sees himself as others see him. The concept of the self is not innate; its origin is entirely social.

• The stage of imitation, in which the child repeats (copies) certain actions inherent in a particular role, for example, laying down a doll or applying a stethoscope to it.
• The play stage (the stage of individual role-playing), in which the child plays an integral role, but in the "social group" of his toys (dad, mother, doctor, etc.). At this stage, the "acceptance of the role of the other" occurs.
• The stage of the game (collective role-playing) (game stage), where the child, together with others, begins to carry out an ordered interaction between different actors, for example, when a group of children aged 5-8 distributes any roles: “daughters-mothers”, “Cossack robbers”, “Stirlitz-Muller”, etc.

Role theory

Important in the theory of roles is the assertion that the basic mechanism and structure of the personality are associated with the role essence. The personality is considered as a set of its social roles. According to these views, a person never remains “just a person”, but always acts in one role or another, is the bearer of certain social functions and community regulations.

• In sociological - as a system of role expectations, i.e. a socially defined role model that has great importance for the formation of a person's personality and his mastery of social roles;
• In the socio-psychological - as the performance of the role and the implementation of interpersonal interaction;
• In the psychological, as an internal or imaginary role, which is not always realized in role-playing behavior, but influences it in a certain way.

The relationship of these three aspects is the role mechanism of the personality. At the same time, social role expectations that determine human behavior are considered to be the leading ones, for which the concept of interactionism by the founder himself, J. Mead, is called “social behaviorism”.

One of the most important concepts of the Theory of roles is “accepting the role of another”, i.e. imagining oneself in the place of an interaction partner and understanding his role behavior. At the same time, a person brings his expectations towards this person in line with his social roles. Without this, a person cannot become a social being and realize the significance of his actions.

“The whole world is a theater, in it women, men are all actors. And everyone plays more than one role ”(W. Shakespeare). A person, as he becomes, grows, turns into a social "microcosm", is included in many groups, peculiar public spaces, in each of which communication is reproduced on the basis of its own language, its own internal symbolism. Wanting to be understood and accepted, a person must master these symbols. Moreover, as communication becomes more complex, the symbolism becomes more and more cumbersome, the internal discipline or “charter” of the role becomes more and more rigid.

The analysis of these processes has been formalized in modern sociology in the role theory, which makes it possible to consider the formation, maintenance and transformation of a person's compliance with social requirements. It is through the concept of "role" that sociology reflects the method of giving a person a form, or rather, forms. Roles are set-prompted by typical patterns of action and reinforce a certain identity.

Role theory appears in sociology as "a tool for verbatim reporting on various types of social activities”(P. Berger) and, at the same time, as a way of seeing a person as a combination of these types, disguises, persons. Its heuristic, explanatory value is undeniable. And at the same time, it is capable of exerting a manipulating influence, postulating social fatalism and thereby justifying individual irresponsibility. And here we are not talking about the "early sociological" vision of the first half of the 19th century - for example, about the social role of the proletarian or bourgeois in Karl Marx. Already in the second half of the 20th century in sociology - especially in symbolic interactionism - there was a growing desire to exclude the role of his individual drives, needs, interests when explaining human behavior, and to consider all the diverse connections of a person with things, nature, other people, groups of people and society as a whole. as connections mediated by role signs, symbols. Symbolic interactionism is based on the idea of ​​social activity as a set of social roles, which is fixed in the system of linguistic and other symbols. Entering into interaction, each individual has an idea of ​​how this interaction will or should proceed.

As a result, an extremely relativistic vision of a person is formed: “From a sociological point of view, a social personality is not some kind of stable given entity, passing from one situation to another. Rather, it is a process of constant generation and rebirth in every social situation - a process tied together by a thin thread of memory.

This vision is opposed by another, which considers the personality as a stable, qualitatively defined social subject, taking shape not as a carrier of private, partial, indifferent to each other fragments-activities, but as the main representative of the social, by which one can judge the essence social life. This is emphasized by T. Adorno, who does not agree with the definition of education as only adaptations. Unthinkable without a moment of adaptation, it is focused on the development in the individual of "resistance to the transformations of the substantive", to mutations in the essence of social life.

In the structure of a person performing various roles, a core, or a deep “I”, stands out. This deep “I” (N. A. Berdyaev) allows a person to preserve himself inside many social spaces, with various forms of activity: in the world of everyday life, in the spaces of religious, scientific, artistic, economic life, etc. Contrary to the role radicalism and pluralism of individual manifestations, the idea of ​​a unique identity of a personality is preserved, which is significant for itself and for society precisely by its integrity and stability: “And yet, the soul, writes G. Simmel, independent of all these intertwinings and involvements that are logically denoted by such a dubious concept of freedom.

As confirmation of the fact that the latter approach more adequately reflects social reality, we can also consider the conclusions that arise in connection with the analysis of the level of performance of roles. Such an analysis shows that this level is one, common to all roles performed in society by one person. in social everyday life performs its various roles no higher and no lower than the level determined by the level of development, the richness of its deep "I".

This does not mean that the roles of the individual are always harmoniously combined. On the contrary, in sociology, it is studied as a frequently perceived situation of role conflict - an intrapersonal contradiction that occurs when it is impossible to combine actions that require a person to consistently perform his different roles. We are talking here, first of all, about the qualitative mismatch of roles. For example, it is extremely difficult for one person to simultaneously fulfill the role of an activist in the movement for the complete independence of Quebec from Canada (which, most likely, is deeply connected with his role as a kind family man, neighbor, historically rooted in his civic identity) and the role of a successful businessman, not only requiring the development of contacts and defining the desire for definition, blurring the boundaries, but, perhaps, turning his life into an "airplane" existence, excluding any form of civic responsibility, assumed by the first role.

However, under conditions of intensification public life the problem of incompatibility of volumes of activities playing their own critical roles personality. For example, the desire to equally well fulfill their roles as a daughter of elderly parents, a mother and a working woman can bring and often today brings a person to a crisis state - due to the fact that the requirements of these roles do not combine quantitatively. Here, the total volume of events requiring the participation (not only physical, but also spiritual) of a woman often simply does not fit into her chronotope (time-space).

Role conflict allows us to see roles not only as opportunities, fields of social practices, but also as limiters, boundaries of these practices. The theory of roles shows how deeply connected, inseparable are the processes of personality formation and its self-realization.

A person (personality) is determined by the requirements and expectations of society. Therefore, she has a set of roles, ways of behaving. They define her status. External behavior does not depend on inner peace person. Ignored the originality of man, his activity, inner world.

Charles Cooley(1864-1929) - am. sociologist. Interactionism.

In the formation of social processes, the decisive role belongs to the human consciousness, the ability to distinguish oneself from the group, to create one's self.

The human self includes:

1. how I introduce myself to another (I introduce myself)

2. how I am perceived by others (how I appear to another person and how this other evaluates my image)

3. the ensuing feeling of self, such as pride and humiliation.

Other people are mirrors that help shape each person's own image.

The theory was called the mirror self theory.

George Herbert Meade(1863-1931) - American sociologist, who made the greatest contribution to the theory of symbolic interactionism.

Social interaction is communication carried out through social symbols (language, gestures, cultural symbols, etc.).

Distinguishes between two types of symbols:

1. insignificant - symbols (gestures) that cause reactions in which there is no thought (instinctive acts - covering the face from a blow);

2. significant - symbols (gestures) inherent only to a person, cause predictable reactions, allow you to perform meaningful actions.

Significant Symbols are found primarily in the language.

In the process of interaction, people must interpret the meanings, intentions of others, for which they take on a role.

The central concept of symbolic interactionism is "self"(self) - "I myself." The self is the ability of people to represent themselves as the object of their own thought. Develops through the process taking on a role during social contacts.

Role acceptance is the ability to mentally put yourself in the place of another person in communication, to understand his intentions. Human communication is a constant process of interpretation by taking on the role of the other.

The formation of the self has two aspects:

1. "I" ("I") - a spontaneous internal representation of the individual himself.

2. “I and others” (“Me”) is a set of attitudes, norms and values ​​of others learned in society.

The result of reflection is the ability of the individual to understand how he is perceived and evaluated by others; influence social groups on personality.

The attitude of the whole community is the attitude of the “generalized Other”.

Through the "generalized Other" the impact on the subsystem "Me" is carried out, "Me" exercises control over "I".

There are many “generalized Others” in society, the subject chooses significant others from them, thereby not only assimilating, but also rejecting the attitudes of others.

In turn, the social "I" is a source of social change: it deviates from social expectations, introduces changes into interaction that transform the content of the social process as a whole.

According to Mead, in traditional societies (earlier) the subsystem "Me" prevails, in modern - "I".

IN domestic science concepts are actively used interiorization external (social) experience (L.S. Vygotsky), appropriation (A.N. Leontiev).

B.D. Parygin distinguished narrow and broad aspects of socialization.

In a narrow sense, socialization is nothing more than a process of entering the social environment and adapting to it.

In a broad sense - as a historical process, phylogeny.

Valuable is the remark of G.M. Andreeva that between socialization and education there are no significant differences. There is one important distinguishing aspect.

Under upbringing It is customary to understand the process of purposeful social impact on a person.

Socialization- in many respects spontaneous, not always realized process.

The most important mechanism for assigning preferences is conformity- susceptibility of individuals to group pressure, submission to it; appropriation and change of values, behavior under the influence of others.

Conformity levels:

1) at the level of suggestibility - the involuntary compliance of the individual with the opinion of the group;

2) at the level of conscious compliance with the majority in order to avoid conflict (as an internal, learned reaction or as an external demonstrative agreement with the group).

The main reasons for conformity are:

Human needs for belonging to a group

In social approval

In the possibility of enjoying the benefits of group membership,

In avoidance conflict situations when deviating from the norm.

We will not exclude the influence on the formation of the values ​​of the phenomenon nonconformism- refutation of the opinion of the group, as a negative subordination to the same group.

And also the true opposite of conformism - positions of self-determination- the selective attitude of the individual to the influences of the group, in which, on the basis of a rational comparison of information with beliefs, goals, a person makes an independent decision.

In the process of socialization, one can single out the most characteristic steps:

1) the stage of subordination - attitudes are formed under the influence of public opinion (close family environment, more distant contact groups) on the basis of a positive assessment as a factor reinforcing and fixing elementary moral ideas;

2) the stage of identification - behavior is controlled by conscience, a sense of duty, external influences are not excluded;

3) the stage of internalization - the emergence of stable internal positions, motives, moral feelings as a special form of manifestation of moral need.

It should be noted that the stages are interconnected, especially since several installations can be in the assignment stages at the same time.

The stage of individualization of attitudes is possible, when the perceived attitudes are subjected to a deeper analysis, comparison with others; further systematization, processing, taking into account the developing ideals of the subject.

The process of socialization is carried out through various social institutions in different forms and types of communication.

Socialization is carried out in various forms of communication: mass, group, interpersonal, informal, business, through the media, as the impact of culture as a whole.

Agents, institutions of socialization: political, economic, public (family, school, informal groups, official organizations).

What determines whether people enter into contact with each other or not, continue it or interrupt it?

There are several theories of interpersonal interaction (Table 7.1):

• exchange theory (J. Homans, P. Blau);
• the theory of symbolic interactionism (J. Mead, G. Bloomer);
• the theory of impression management (E. Hoffman);
• psychoanalytic theory (3. Freud), etc.

Interpersonal interactions

The dependence of people on each other as a problem of human relationships is the core of human existence. Each of us has a strong need to enter into long-term close relationships with other people that guarantee positive experiences and results.

It is due to biological and social causes and contributes to human survival. Our ancestors were bound by a mutual guarantee that ensures the preservation of the group: both in hunting and in the construction of dwellings, ten pairs of hands better than one.

Table 7.1

Theories of the interpersonal interactions

Exchange theory (Homans, Deutsch, Blau, Tibbo)	The Theory of Symbolic Interactionism (Mead)	attraction theory
A) People interact, exchanging information with each other, some benefits. If a person receives the necessary benefits from the interaction, then the contact continues. B) A person strives for “maximum gain” (the sum of benefits must exceed the sum of costs, and so that the other person does not benefit more than you). B) The law of aggression: if a person does not receive the reward he expected, then aggression becomes more valuable to him than interaction. D) "The law of saturation": the more often a person received a certain reward, the less valuable the repetition of this reward will be for him. E) “Principle of least interest”: a person who is less interested in the continuation of a given social situation of exchange and communication, has a greater ability to dictate his terms of exchange, receives power. E) "Principle of monopoly": if a person has a monopoly right to a certain reward that other participants in the exchange want to receive, then he imposes his will on them (power relations). G) People strive for a symmetrical exchange so that the rewards of the participants are proportional to the costs.	A) People observe, comprehend each other's intentions, put themselves in the place of another person, adjust their behavior to expectations and the actions of other people. B) People realize social expectations - "inspections" of each other, norms of behavior, rights and obligations of their social role. B) Man realizes social roles through "imitation" (in childhood), "performing" and "choosing" those roles and groups where this person is valued.	A) People interact with each other if they experience mutual sympathy, location, attraction. B) Sympathy occurs if there are a number of conditions: contacts are frequent; obvious physical attractiveness; one is equal to the other in attractiveness, intelligence, status; noticeable similarity of interests, opinions; there is a common origin; complementarity is important for the continuation of relations; we like those who like us; like those who are friendly and attentive to us, understand us; there is a sexual attraction.

Theory of Ethnomethodology (Garfinkel)	Psychoanalytic theories	Theory of the dramatic approach (Hoffmann)
A) The interaction of people is regulated by laws, norms, rules, values ​​- this is the center of social interaction. B) People themselves strive to establish agreement, some rules.	A) When people interact, their childhood experience is reproduced (they obey the leaders of the group, just as they obeyed their father in childhood; they conflict with people if they protested against their parents in childhood).	A) People, like actors, play roles, want to make a good impression on others, hide their shortcomings. Human interaction is a theatrical play.
Balance theories (Hydre, Newcomb)	Transactional theory (E. Berne)	Conflict Theory (Park, Rex)
A) The interaction of people depends on how balanced their opinions, attitudes are towards each other and third objects (objects, people). B) Continuation of relations with a balance of people's opinions: "Friends of my friends are my friends"; "The enemies of my enemies are my friends." B) It is possible to break relations between people with a dissonance of their opinions (for example, “the husband loves his car, his wife does not love the car” - a dissonance that can lead to misunderstanding, cooling and breaking off relations).	A) The interaction of people depends on the psychological positions they take in the process of communication. B) A person can take the position of an Adult, Parent or Child in a particular situation of interaction. B) Different forms of human interaction are characterized by specific positions of the participants. D) Allocate forms of interaction: rituals, operations, pastime, games, manipulations, care, competition, conflict.	A) The driving force behind the development of human interaction is competition, which can lead to conflict. Competition, competition - conflict - adaptation - assimilation (fading of the conflict, transformation of personalities under the influence of close contacts). B) Causes of conflicts: the presence of conflicting interests and goals, people's opinions.

Social relationships between children and adults raising them also increase the resilience of both. Having found a kindred “soul”, a person who supports us, whom we can trust, we feel happy, protected, resilient. Having lost a soul mate, people experience jealousy, loneliness, despair, pain, anger, deprivation, and withdraw into themselves.

A person is a social, social being living in conditions of interaction and communication with other people.

The unit of interaction is called transaction.

Eric Berne wrote:

People, being together in the same group, will inevitably talk to each other or show their awareness of the presence of each other. The person to whom the transactional stimulus is addressed will say or do something in response. We call this response a transactional response. A transaction is considered additional if the stimulus leads to the expected response.

This psychologist highlights positionsParent, Adult, Child,that create a real process of interaction. The position of the Parent implies a tendency to dominance, competition, to the manifestation of power and a sense of high self-worth, to teaching and critical condemnation. Position of the Adult - a tendency to equal cooperation, recognition of oneself and others of equal rights and responsibility for the outcome of interaction. The position of the Child is a tendency to submit, to seek support and protection (“obedient child”) or to emotional impulsive protest, rebellion, unpredictable whims (“rebellious child”).

It is possible to distinguish variousforms of interpersonal interaction:attachment, friendship, love, competition, withdrawal, pastime, operation, game, social influence, submission, conflicts, ritual interaction, etc. They are characterized by specific positions.

One of the common forms isritual interaction,which is built according to certain rules, symbolically expressing real social relations and the status of a person in a group and society. The ritual acts as a special form of interaction invented by people to satisfy the need for recognition. In this case, the relationship "Parent-Parent" dominates. Thanks to this interaction, the value of the group is revealed, people express what affects them most, constitutes their social value orientations.

The English scholar Victor Turner, considering rituals and ceremonies, understands them as prescribed formal behavior, as "a system of beliefs and actions performed by a special cult association." They are important for maintaining continuity between different generations in an organization, for preserving traditions and transferring accumulated experience through symbols.

Ritual interaction is both a kind of holiday that has a deep emotional impact on people, and a powerful tool that maintains stability, strength, continuity. social connections, a mechanism for rallying people, increasing their solidarity. Rituals, rituals, customs are able to be imprinted on the subconscious level, providing deep penetration of certain values ​​into the group and individual consciousness, into the tribal and personal memory.

Mankind has developed many customs: religious rites, palace ceremonies, diplomatic receptions, military rituals, secular customs, holidays and funerals. Rituals include numerous norms of behavior: receiving guests, greeting acquaintances, addressing strangers, etc.

Ritual - this is a rigidly fixed sequence of transactions, and they are made from the position of the Parent and addressed to the position of the Parent, allowing people to feel recognized.

If a person's need for recognition is not realized, then aggressive behavior begins to develop. The ritual is precisely designed to remove this aggression, to satisfy the need to be recognized at least minimally.

For other types of interactions, operations - the transaction is carried out from the position of "Adult-Adult". We meet with him every day: at work, at school, when we cook food, repair an apartment, etc. Having successfully completed an operation, a person is established in his competence and receives confirmation from others.

Labor interaction, distribution and performance of professional, family functions, skillful and efficient implementation of these duties - these are the operations that fill people's lives.

Competition- a form of social interaction when there is a clear goal that needs to be achieved, and all the actions of various people are correlated with this goal in mind so that they do not conflict. At the same time, a person does not come into conflict with himself, adhering to the attitude of another team player, although he has an inherent desire to achieve best results than other team members. Since a person accepts the attitudes of other people and allows him to determine what he will do in accordance with some common goal, to the extent that he becomes an organic member of his group, society, accepting its morality and becoming its significant member.

In some cases, being with other people in the same room and performing seemingly joint activities, a person mentally stays in a completely different place, talks with imaginary interlocutors, dreams about his own. This specific interaction is called leaving. This is a common and natural form of interaction, but still more often resorted to by people who have problems with interpersonal interaction. If a person does not have other forms of interaction, except for care, then this is already a pathology - psychosis.

The next type of approved fixed interactions ispastime,providing at least some pleasant sensations, signs of attention from partners.

pastime- a fixed form of transactions designed to satisfy people's need for recognition.

If this form is realized from the position of "Parent-Parent", then most often it is expressed as follows: everything that deviates from the norm (children, women, men, power, television, etc.) is discussed and condemned. Or such is the discussion of the topics “Things” (comparison of cars, televisions, etc. in possession), “Who won yesterday” (football and other sports results), is a pastime for men; “Kitchen”, “Shop”, “Clothes”, “Children”, “How much does it cost?”, “Do you know what it is…” - topics for women. In the process of this, the partners and the prospects for developing relations with them are evaluated.

The stable interaction of people can be due to the appearance of mutual sympathy, attractions. Close relationships that provide support and companionship (i.e., we feel loved, approved, and encouraged by friends and loved ones) are associated with feelings of happiness. Studies have shown that such positive relationships improve health, reduce the likelihood of premature death. “Friendship is the strongest antidote for all misfortunes,” said Seneca.

Factors that contribute to the formation of attraction (attachment, sympathy):

1. The frequency of mutual social contacts, geographical proximity (most people begin to make friends and marry those who live in the neighborhood, study in the same class, work in the same company, i.e. with those who live, study, work nearby; people can partly meet, find similarities in each other, exchange signs of attention). Physical attractiveness (men tend to love women for their appearance, but women also like attractive men - they like beauty).
2. The phenomenon of "equal" (people tend to choose their friends and especially marry those who are equal in intellectual level and as attractive as they are). E. Fromm wrote: “Love is often nothing more than a mutually beneficial exchange between two people, in which the participants in the transaction get the most out of what they can count on, taking into account their value in the personality market.” In couples where partners differed in their degree of attractiveness, the yielder usually has a compensatory quality. Men offer status on their part, trying to find attractiveness, and women do rather the opposite, so young beauties often marry older men who occupy a high position in society.
3. The more attractive the person, the more likely it is to attribute to him positive qualities(this is a stereotype of physical attractiveness: what is beautiful is good). People unconsciously believe that other things being equal, the more beautiful are happier, sexier, more sociable, smarter and luckier, although they are not at all more honest or caring towards other people. People who are attractive have more prestigious jobs and earn more.
4. Attraction is negatively affected by the “contrast effect”: for example, men who have just looked at magazine beauties, ordinary women and wives seem less attractive; after watching pornographic films, sexual satisfaction with a partner decreases.
5. "Enhancement Effect": When we find traits in someone that are similar to ours, this makes the person more attractive to us. The more two people love each other, the more physically attractive they find each other and the less attractive all other people of the opposite sex seem to them.
6. The similarity of social origin, interests, views is important for establishing relationships ("We love those who are like us and do the same as we do," Aristotle pointed out).
7. To continue relations, mutual complementation, competence in a field close to our interests is necessary.
8. We like those who like us.
9. If a person's self-esteem was hurt in some previous situation, then he will like a new acquaintance who kindly pays attention to him (this helps to explain why sometimes people fall so passionately in love after they were previously rejected by another, thereby affecting their ego ).
10. Reward theory of attraction: according to it, we like those people whose behavior is beneficial to us, or those with whom we associate events that are beneficial to us.
11. The principle of mutually beneficial exchange or equal participation: what you and your partner receive from your relationship should be proportional to what each of you invests in it.

If two or more people have a lot in common, a closeness factor is formed. With the strengthening of relationships, when people do something nice for each other, sympathy is formed. When they mutually discover dignity and recognize the right for themselves and others to be as they are, respect is formed.

Forms of interaction such as friendship and love satisfy people's need for acceptance. They look like a pastime, but in these cases the partner is fixed, and sympathy arises towards him. Friendship includes sympathy and respect, love differs from it in an enhanced sexual component, that is, it is sexual attraction + sympathy + respect. In the case of falling in love, there is only a combination of sexual attraction and sympathy.

These forms of interaction differ from all others in that they necessarily contain hidden Child-Child transactions expressing mutual recognition and sympathy. People can discuss any problems they want, even at a completely adult and serious level, but in their every word and gesture will be read: "I like you." Some features are characteristic of all friendships and love attachments: mutual understanding, self-giving, pleasure from being with a loved one, care, responsibility, intimate trust, self-disclosure (discovery of innermost thoughts and experiences in front of another person). (“What is a friend? This is a person with whom you dare to be yourself,” remarked F. Crane.)

E. Bern studied such interactions between people asgame manipulation.The game is a distorted way of manifesting the Self, because all the interpersonal needs of a person are transformed into one - control: a person resorts to force if he wants recognition or acceptance. Regardless of the originality of the need and the life situation, the game offers only a forceful solution.

Games (or "games", from English. game) - this is a stereotypical series of interactions leading to a predictable result, this is a series of manipulations that are designed to change the behavior of another person to the desired one for the transaction initiator

side without considering the wishes of the other. Games, in contrast to rituals, pastimes, operations, friendship, love, are dishonest interactions, since they include traps, tricks, and retributions.

Games differ from other ways of structuring time in two ways:

• hidden motives;
• having a win.

Each participant in the game, even those who have been defeated, receives a win, but it is extremely specific - in the form of negative feelings of resentment, fear, guilt, hatred, suspicion, humiliation, contempt, arrogance, which serves as a kind of confirmation of the correctness of the life position of these people, according to which "people are bad I'm bad, life is bad.

Berne pointed out that many people play these unconscious games with specific negative gains, since this is an important part of a person's unconscious life plan or script. Each game begins with a bait that the active participant, the initiator, offers to the passive one, taking into account the characteristics of the character and the “weakness” of that one. This is followed by a series of double transactions, which invariably lead to a pre-planned result. Once you start a game, it is almost impossible to get out of it, especially if you are a passive participant, resulting in a payoff or a win.

In order not to become a victim of other people's manipulations, it is important to turn double transactions into open, direct ones, since the game is possible only if there is a hidden subtext in words, transactions.

An analysis of manipulations shows that, despite all the differences, they have much in common, and this makes it possible to build a fairly reliable protection against them.

It can be done according to the following flowchart:

1. Show no weakness(do not fall for the bait, realize what your weakness is being exploited). All scams - from the smallest to the largest - are built, as a rule, on the use of people's greed, the desire to get rich quickly. The thirst for easy profit is so strong that it paralyzes the most elementary caution. Another human weakness is curiosity, in particular the desire to know one's future, destiny. This weakness has been successfully exploited by fortune-tellers and seers for many centuries. The other is a thirst for thrills. It is realized in gambling. It affects mainly the strong sex. The desire to impress, to show off is also used by manipulators.
2. Realize that you are being manipulated. A sign of manipulation is a feeling of inconvenience: you don’t want to do something, say something, but you have to - otherwise it’s uncomfortable, you will “look bad”. It is enough to say to yourself: “Stop, manipulation!”
3. Apply passive or active protection.It is recommended to use the first one if you do not know what to do, how to answer the manipulator. Don't say anything. Pretend that you did not hear, did not understand, or even ask about something else.
4. With active defense, “dot the z” or resort to countermanipulation.
5. countermanipulation.The manipulator usually exploits our desire to look good, so do not be afraid to look bad: “I'm afraid you greatly exaggerate my virtues” (generosity, opportunities, abilities) - these words relieve you of all obligations and open up unlimited scope for improvisation.

So, if you decide on active protection, then do not hesitate to say what bothers you in the partner's proposal.

If this is an optional borrower, it is enough to tell him, for example, about your uncertainty that he will repay the debt on time, that he himself is to blame for this.

The meaning of countermanipulation is to pretend that you don’t understand that they are trying to manipulate you, start a counter game and end it with a sudden question showing the manipulator your psychological superiority.

For example, he says: “Are you weak ...?” and suggests something dangerous or criminal. The answer is: “Can you do it yourself? Do It!"

Sometimes, feeling that we are being manipulated, we can succumb to the manipulator. This is advisable when the damage from this is less than from the deterioration of relations with the manipulator, or if it is obvious how other actions can compensate for your loss.

It is difficult to resist the manipulations that occur between people during family, industrial, domestic interactions, but it is even more difficult when professional fraudsters who have turned manipulation into a way of life, a way of existence, are involved in the matter. Sad but must be acknowledged objective fact that now in Russia the number of fraudsters is growing rapidly, capturing wide social strata - from government circles and "rich Russians" to criminals and the homeless.

The fraudulent manipulator does three things at the same time:

• finds in people their weak point, a tendency to "naive manipulation" (greed, faith "in miracles", the desire to get ahead of others, outwit them);
• inspires confidence in himself, skillfully hiding his goals;
• successfully deceives people by creating "plausible lies" and the right situation.

And if these three factors are implemented, then the fraudster achieves his goal, usually it is obvious: to appropriate someone else's property, finances, benefits, etc.