The second half of the 19th century occupies a special place in the history of Russia. In terms of significance, the period can only be compared with the era of Peter's transformations. This is the time of the abolition of centuries-old serfdom in Russia and a whole series of reforms affecting all aspects of social life.

On February 18, 1855, 37-year-old Alexander II ascended the Russian throne. On February 19, 1861, the emperor signed the Manifesto abolishing serfdom. The abolition of serfdom was accompanied by the reform of all aspects of the life of Russian society.

Land reform. The main issue in Russia during the 18th-19th centuries was land and peasantry. Catherine II raised this issue in the work of the Free Economic Society, which considered several dozen programs for the abolition of serfdom by both Russian and foreign authors. Alexander I issued a decree "On free farmers", which allowed the landowners to free their peasants from serfdom together with the land for a ransom. During the years of his reign, Nicholas I created 11 secret committees on the peasant question, whose task was to abolish serfdom and resolve the land issue in Russia.

In 1857, by decree of Alexander II, a secret committee on the peasant question began to work, the main task of which was the abolition of serfdom with the obligatory allotment of land to the peasants. Then such committees were created for the provinces. As a result of their work (and taking into account the wishes and orders of both landlords and peasants), a reform was developed to abolish serfdom for all regions of the country, taking into account local specifics. For various regions, the maximum and minimum values ​​of the allotment transferred to the peasant were determined.

The Emperor signed a number of laws on February 19, 1861. Here was the Manifesto and the Regulation on the granting of freedom to the peasants, documents on the entry into force of the Regulation, on the management of rural communities, etc. The abolition of serfdom was not a one-time event. First, landlord peasants were freed, then appanage peasants and those assigned to factories. The peasants received personal freedom, but the land remained the landlord's property, and while the allotments were allotted, the peasants in the position of "temporarily liable" bore duties in favor of the landlords, which in fact did not differ from the former serfs. The allotments given to the peasants were, on average, 1/5 less than those that they had worked on before. Redemption agreements were concluded for these lands, after which the “temporarily liable” state was terminated, the treasury paid for the land with the landlords, the peasants - with the treasury for 49 years at the rate of 6% per annum (redemption payments).

Land use and relations with the authorities were built through the community. It was preserved as a guarantor of peasant payments. The peasants were attached to the society (world).

As a result of the reforms, serfdom was abolished - that “obvious and tangible evil for all”, which in Europe was directly called “Russian slavery”. However, the land problem was not resolved, since the peasants, when the land was divided, were forced to give the landowners a fifth of their allotments. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the first Russian revolution broke out in Russia, a peasant revolution in many respects in terms of the composition of the driving forces and the tasks that faced it. This is what made P.A. Stolypin to carry out land reform, allowing the peasants to leave the community. The essence of the reform was to resolve the land issue, but not by confiscating land from the landowners, as the peasants demanded, but by redistributing the land of the peasants themselves.

Zemskaya and city reforms. The principle of the Zemstvo reform carried out in 1864 was electiveness and lack of estates. In the provinces and districts of Central Russia and parts of Ukraine, zemstvos were established as bodies of local self-government. Elections to zemstvo assemblies were carried out on the basis of property, age, educational and a number of other qualifications. Women and wage earners were denied the right to vote. This gave an advantage to the wealthiest strata of the population. The assemblies were elected by zemstvo councils. Zemstvos were in charge of local affairs, promoted entrepreneurship, education, health care - they carried out work for which the state did not have the funds.

The city reform carried out in 1870 was similar in character to the Zemstvo reform. V large cities city ​​dumas were established on the basis of all-estate elections. However, the elections were held on a census basis, and, for example, in Moscow only 4% of the adult population took part in them. City councils and the mayor decided on issues of internal self-government, education and medical services. To control the zemstvo and city activities, a presence for city affairs was created.

Judicial reform. New judicial statutes were approved on November 20, 1864. The judicial branch was separated from the executive and legislative branches. An unclassified and open court was introduced, and the principle of the irremovability of judges was affirmed. Two types of court were introduced - general (crown) and world. The general court was in charge of criminal cases. The trial became open, although in a number of cases the cases were heard under “ closed doors". An adversarial nature of the court was established, the posts of investigators were introduced, and the legal profession was established. The question of the guilt of the defendant was decided by 12 jurors. The most important principle of the reform was the recognition of the equality of all subjects of the empire before the law.

The institution of justices of the peace was introduced to deal with civil cases. The court of appeal was the court of appeal. The office of a notary was introduced. Since 1872, major political cases were considered in the Special Presence of the ruling Senate, which at the same time became the highest court of cassation.

Military reform. After the appointment in 1861, D.A. Milyutin as Minister of War, the reorganization of the command and control of the armed forces begins. In 1864, 15 military districts were formed, subordinate directly to the Minister of War. In 1867, a military-judicial charter was adopted. In 1874, after a lengthy discussion, the tsar approved the Charter on universal military service. A flexible call system was introduced. Recruitment kits were canceled, the entire male population who had reached the age of 21 was subject to conscription. The service life was reduced in the army to 6 years, in the navy to 7 years. Clergymen, members of a number of religious sects, the peoples of Kazakhstan and Central Asia, as well as some peoples of the Caucasus and the Far North were not subject to conscription. The only son, the only breadwinner in the family, was released from service. In peacetime, the need for soldiers was much less than the number of conscripts, so everyone fit for service, with the exception of those who received benefits, drew lots. For those who graduated from primary school, the service was reduced to 3 years, for those who graduated from a gymnasium - to 1.5 years, a university or institute - to 6 months.

Financial reform. In 1860 the State Bank was established, the ransom2 system was canceled, which was replaced by excise duties3 (1863). From 1862 the Minister of Finance became the only responsible manager of budget revenues and expenditures; the budget became public. An attempt was made to carry out monetary reform (free exchange of banknotes for gold and silver at a fixed rate).

Education reforms. The "Statute on Primary Public Schools" of June 14, 1864 eliminated the state-church monopoly on education. Now, both public institutions and private individuals were allowed to open and maintain primary schools under the control of the district and provincial school councils and inspectors. The high school charter introduced the principle of equality of all estates and religions, but introduced tuition fees. The gymnasiums were divided into classical and real ones. In the classical gymnasiums, in general, the humanities were taught, in the real ones - natural. After the resignation of the Minister of Public Education A.V. Golovnin (in 1861, D.A.Tolstoy was appointed to replace him), a new gymnasium charter was adopted, which retained only classical gymnasiums, real gymnasiums were replaced by real schools. Along with the male secondary education, a system of female gymnasiums appeared.

The University Charter (1863) granted universities broad autonomy, and the election of rectors and professors was introduced. The management of the educational institution was transferred to the Council of Professors, to which the students were subordinate. Universities were opened in Odessa and Tomsk, higher courses for women in St. Petersburg, Kiev, Moscow, Kazan.

As a result of the publication of a number of laws, a harmonious education system was created in Russia, including primary, secondary and higher educational institutions.

Censorship reform. In May 1862, the censorship reform began, and “provisional rules” were introduced, which were replaced in 1865 by a new censorship charter. The new charter abolished preliminary censorship for books of 10 or more printed pages (240 pages); editors and publishers could only be prosecuted. By special permits and with a deposit of several thousand rubles, periodicals were also exempted from censorship, but they could be suspended administratively. Only government and scientific publications, as well as literature translated from a foreign language, could be published without censorship.

The preparation and implementation of reforms was an important factor in the country's socio-economic development. Administratively, the reforms were well prepared, but public opinion did not always keep up with the ideas of the reformer tsar. The variety and speed of transformation gave rise to a feeling of uncertainty and confusion in thoughts. People lost their bearings, organizations that profess extremist, sectarian principles appeared.

The economy of post-reform Russia is characterized by the rapid development of commodity-money relations. There was an increase in acreage and agricultural production, but agricultural productivity remained low. Yields and food consumption (except for bread) were 2-4 times lower than in Western Europe. At the same time, in the 80s. compared to the 50s. the average annual grain harvest increased by 38%, and its export increased by 4.6 times.

The development of commodity-money relations led to property differentiation in the countryside, middle peasant farms were ruined, and the number of poor people grew. On the other hand, strong kulak farms appeared, some of which used agricultural machines. All this was part of the plans of the reformers. But quite unexpectedly for them, the traditionally hostile attitude towards trade, towards all new forms of activity: towards the kulak, the merchant, the buyer - towards the successful entrepreneur has intensified in the country.

In Russia, large-scale industry was created and developed as a state industry. The main concern of the government after the failures of the Crimean War was the enterprises producing military equipment. The military budget of Russia in general terms was inferior to the British, French, German, but in the Russian budget it had a more significant weight. Particular attention was paid to the development of heavy industry and transport. It was in these areas that the government directed funds, both Russian and foreign.

The growth of entrepreneurship was controlled by the state through the issuance of special orders, so the big bourgeoisie was closely connected with the state. The number of industrial workers grew rapidly, but many workers retained economic and psychological ties with the countryside, they carried a charge of discontent among the poor, who lost their land and were forced to look for food in the city.

The reforms laid the foundation for a new credit system. For the years 1866-1875. 359 joint-stock commercial banks, mutual credit companies and other financial institutions were created. Since 1866, the largest European banks began to actively participate in their work. As a result of government regulation foreign loans and investments went mainly to railway construction. Railways ensured the expansion of the economic market in the vast expanses of Russia; they were also important for the operational transfer of military units.

In the second half of the 19th century, the political situation in the country changed several times. During the period of preparation of reforms, from 1855 to 1861, the government retained the initiative of action, attracted all supporters of the reforms - from the highest bureaucracy to the democrats. Subsequently, difficulties with the implementation of reforms exacerbated the internal political situation in the country. The government's struggle against opponents "on the left" took on a fierce character: the suppression of peasant uprisings, the arrest of liberals, the defeat of the Polish uprising. The role of the III Security (gendarme) department has increased.

In the 1860s, a radical movement, the populists, entered the political arena. The diverse intelligentsia, relying on the revolutionary democratic ideas and nihilism of D.I. Pisareva, created the theory of revolutionary populism. The Narodniks believed in the possibility of achieving socialism, bypassing capitalism, through the liberation of the peasant community - the rural "world". "Rebel" M.A. Bakunin predicted a peasant revolution, the fuse of which was to be ignited by the revolutionary intelligentsia. P.N. Tkachev was a theoretician of a coup d'etat, after which the intelligentsia, having carried out the necessary transformations, would liberate the community. P.L. Lavrov substantiated the idea of ​​thorough preparation of the peasants for the revolutionary struggle. In 1874, a mass “going to the people” began, but the agitation of the populists could not ignite the flames of the peasant uprising.

In 1876 the organization "Land and Freedom" was formed, which in 1879 split into two groups. The Black Redistribution group, headed by G.V. The Plekhanovs paid the main attention to propaganda; "Narodnaya Volya" headed by

A.I. Zhelyabov, N.A. Morozov, S.L. Perovskaya highlighted the political struggle. The main means of struggle, according to the "Narodnaya Volya", was individual terror, regicide, which was supposed to serve as a signal for a popular uprising. In 1879-1881. Narodnaya Volya carried out a series of attempts on the life of Alexander II.

In a situation of acute political confrontation, the authorities took the path of self-defense. On February 12, 1880, the "Supreme Administrative Commission for the Protection of State Order and Public Peace" was created, headed by M.P. Loris-Melikov. Having received unlimited rights, Loris-Melikov achieved the suspension of the terrorist activities of the revolutionaries and some stabilization of the situation. In April 1880 the commission was liquidated; Loris-Melikov was appointed Minister of Internal Affairs and began to prepare the completion of the "great cause of state reforms." The development of draft final laws of reforms was entrusted to the "people" - temporary preparatory commissions with a wide representation of zemstvos and cities.

On February 5, 1881, the submitted bill was approved by Emperor Alexander II. "The Loris-Melikov Constitution" provided for the election of "representatives from public institutions ..." to the highest bodies of state power. On the morning of March 1, 1881, the emperor called a meeting of the Council of Ministers to approve the bill; literally a few hours later, Alexander II was killed by members of the "Narodnaya Volya" organization.

The new Emperor Alexander III held a meeting of the Council of Ministers on March 8, 1881 to discuss the Loris-Melikov project. At the meeting, the Chief Prosecutor of the Holy Synod K.P. Pobedonostsev and the head of the State Council S.G. Stroganov. Loris-Melikov's resignation soon followed.

In May 1883, Alexander III proclaimed a course called "counter-reforms" in the historical-materialist literature, and "correction of reforms" in the liberal-historical literature. He expressed himself as follows.

In 1889, in order to strengthen the supervision of the peasants, the positions of zemstvo chiefs with broad rights were introduced. They were appointed from the local noble landowners. The clerks and small traders, other poor strata of the city were deprived of the right to vote. The judicial reform has undergone changes. In the new regulation on zemstvos in 1890, the estate-nobility representation was strengthened. In 1882-1884. many publications were closed, and the autonomy of universities was abolished. Primary schools were transferred to the church department - the Synod.

These events revealed the idea of ​​an “official nationality” of the times of Nicholas I - the slogan “Orthodoxy. Autocracy. The spirit of humility ”was consonant with the slogans of a bygone era. New official ideologists K.P. Pobedonostsev (Chief Prosecutor of the Synod), M.N. Katkov (editor of Moskovskiye vedomosti), Prince V. Meshchersky (publisher of the newspaper Grazhdanin) dropped the word “people” as “dangerous” in the old formula “Orthodoxy, autocracy and people”; they preached the humility of his spirit before the autocracy and the church. In practice, the new policy resulted in an attempt to strengthen the state by relying on the traditionally loyal nobility to the throne. Administrative measures were supported by the economic support of the landlord households.

On October 20, 1894, 49-year-old Alexander III suddenly died of acute inflammation of the kidneys in Crimea. Nicholas II ascended the imperial throne.

In January 1895, at the first meeting of representatives of the nobility, the top of the zemstvos, cities and Cossack troops with the new tsar, Nicholas II declared his readiness to "protect the beginnings of autocracy as firmly and unswervingly as his father did." During these years, representatives of the royal family, which by the beginning of the twentieth century, had up to 60 members, often intervened in the management of the state. Most of the Grand Dukes held important administrative and military posts. Especially big influence the tsar's uncles, the brothers of Alexander III - the Grand Dukes Vladimir, Alexei, Sergei, and his cousins ​​Nikolai Nikolaevich, Alexander Mikhailovich, rendered policy on politics.

After the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War, a new balance of forces developed, and the political primacy in Europe passed to France. Russia as a Great Power has lost its influence on international affairs and found itself isolated. The interests of economic development, as well as considerations of strategic security, required, first of all, to eliminate the restrictions on military navigation in the Black Sea provided for by the Paris Peace Treaty of 1856. Russia's diplomatic efforts were aimed at separating the participants in the Paris Peace - France, England, Austria.

In the late 50s - early 60s. there was a rapprochement with France, which intended to seize territory on the Apennine Peninsula, using the Italian liberation movement against Austria. But relations with France worsened as a result of Russia's brutal suppression of the Polish uprising. In the 60s. relations between Russia and the United States have grown stronger; Pursuing its own interests, the autocracy supported the republican government of A. Lincoln in the civil war. At the same time, an agreement was reached with Prussia on its support of Russia's demands for the abolition of the Paris Treaty; in return, the tsarist government promised not to interfere with the creation of the North German Union headed by Prussia.

In 1870 France suffered a crushing defeat in the Franco-Prussian War. In October 1870 Russia announced its refusal to comply with the humiliating articles of the Paris Treaty. In 1871, the Russian declaration was adopted and legalized at the London Conference. The strategic task of foreign policy was solved not by war, but by diplomatic means.

Russia got the opportunity to more actively influence international affairs, primarily in the Balkans. In 1875-1876. uprisings against Turkey covered the entire peninsula, the Slavs were waiting for Russia's help.

On April 24, 1877, the tsar signed the Manifesto declaring war on Turkey. A short-term campaign plan was developed. On July 7, the troops crossed the Danube, reached the Balkans, captured the Shipka Pass, but were detained near Plevna. Plevna fell only on November 28, 1877; in winter, the Russian army crossed the Balkans, on January 4, 1878, Sofia was taken, on January 8 - Adrianople. The Porta requested peace, which was concluded on February 19, 1878 in San Stefano. Under the treaty at San Stefano, Turkey lost almost all of its European possessions; a new independent state appeared on the map of Europe - Bulgaria.

The Western powers refused to recognize the Treaty of San Stefano. In June 1878, the Berlin Congress opened, which adopted decisions that were much less beneficial for Russia and the peoples of the Balkan Peninsula. In Russia, this was greeted as an insult to national dignity, a storm of indignation arose, including against the government. Public opinion was still held captive by the “all at once” formula. The war, which ended in victory, turned into a diplomatic defeat, economic disorder, and an aggravation of the internal political situation.

In the first years after the war, there was a "rebalancing" of the interests of the great powers. Germany was inclined towards an alliance with Austria-Hungary, which was concluded in 1879, and in 1882 was supplemented by a "triple alliance" with Italy. Under these conditions, there was a natural rapprochement between Russia and France, which ended in 1892 with the conclusion of a secret alliance, supplemented by a military convention. For the first time in world history, an economic and military-political confrontation between stable groupings of great powers began.

The conquest and annexation of new territories continued in the “near abroad”. Now, in the 19th century, the desire to expand the area was determined primarily by motives of a socio-political nature. Russia took an active part in big politics, sought to neutralize the influence of England in Central Asia, Turkey in the Caucasus. In the 60s. in the USA there was Civil War, the import of American cotton was difficult. Its natural substitute was at hand, in Central Asia. And, finally, the established imperial traditions pushed to the seizure of territories.

In 1858 and 1860. China was forced to cede land on the left bank of the Amur and the Ussuri region. In 1859, after a half-century of war, the Caucasian highlanders were finally "pacified", their military and spiritual leader Imam Shamil was taken prisoner in the high-mountainous village of Gunib. In 1864, the conquest of the Western Caucasus was completed.

The Russian emperor strove to ensure that the rulers of the states of Central Asia recognized his supreme power, and achieved this: in 1868 the Khiva Khanate, and in 1873 the Bukhara Emirate recognized vassal dependence on Russia. The Muslims of the Kokand Khanate declared a "holy war", "ghazavat" to Russia, but were defeated; in 1876 Kokand was annexed to Russia. In the early 80s. Russian troops defeated the nomadic Turkmen tribes and came close to the borders of Afghanistan.

On Far East in exchange for the Kuril Islands, the southern part of Sakhalin Island was acquired from Japan. In 1867, Alaska was sold to the United States for $ 7 million. According to the historian

S.G. Pushkarev, many Americans believed that she was not worth it.

The Russian Empire, "one and indivisible", stretched "from the Finnish cold rocks to the fiery Taurida", from the Vistula to the Pacific Ocean and occupied a sixth of the land.

The split of Russian society in the spiritual sphere began in the time of Peter I and deepened in the 19th century. The monarchy continued the work of "Europeanizing Russia", disregarding the traditions of Russian culture. Outstanding achievements of European science, literature, art were available only to a limited number of Russian people; they had little effect on the daily life of the common people. A person of a different culture was perceived by the peasants as a master, a "stranger".

The level of education was reflected in the reader's taste. In the 1860s. folklore, tales of knights and pedagogical works accounted for 60% of all publications. During the same time, the popularity of stories about robbers, love, science has grown from 16 to 40%. In the 90s. in folk literature, a rational hero appears, relying on personal initiative. Such a change in subject matter testified to the emergence of liberal values ​​in the mass consciousness.

In folklore, the epic faded away, the role of ritual poetry fell, and the significance of the accusatory satirical genre, directed with its edge against a merchant, an official, a kulak, grew. In ditties theme family relations supplemented by socio-political stories. Workers' folklore appeared.

In the popular consciousness, along with self-confidence, a mystical belief in the patronage or hostility of supernatural forces coexisted, carelessness coexisted with diligence, cruelty with kindness, and humility with dignity.

Russian science has reached a new level, differentiated into fundamental and applied. Many scientific discoveries and technical innovations have become the property of world science and technology.

The second half of the 19th century was the heyday of Russian literature. Passionate thought about the fate of the motherland, attention to people are its characteristic features. In the 90s. the "silver age" of Russian poetry began. Contrary to the established views, the poets of this time, the Symbolists, did not move away from the problems of our time. They strove to take the place of teachers and prophets of life. Their talent manifested itself not only in the sophistication of form, but also in humanity.

The Russian theme sounded with increasing clarity and purity in culture and gained dominance by the end of the 19th century. At the same time, the social and everyday foundations of ancient Russian life disintegrated, the Orthodox-national consciousness eroded away.

Significant changes took place in everyday life. Urban communal services were developing. Streets were paved (usually with cobblestones), their lighting was improved - kerosene, gas, then electric lights. In the 60s. A water supply system was built in St. Petersburg (in Moscow, Saratov, Vilna, Stavropol it existed until 1861) and seven provincial cities (Riga, Yaroslavl, Tver, Voronezh, etc.), until 1900 it appeared in 40 more large cities.

In the early 80s. the telephone appeared in the cities of Russia; by the end of the 19th century, almost all significant cities had telephone lines. In 1882 the first intercity line Petersburg - Gatchina was laid. In the late 80s. the line Moscow - St. Petersburg, one of the longest in the world, came into operation.

The growth of the population of large cities caused the construction of railways. The first "horse tram" was organized in the early 60s. Petersburg, in the 70s she began to work in Moscow and Odessa, in the 80s - in Riga, Kharkov, Revel. In the 90s. horse trams began to give way to trams. The first tram in Russia went to Kiev in 1892, the second to Kazan, and the third to Nizhny Novgorod.

The communal economy usually covered the central part of the cities. The outskirts, even in the capitals, remained uncomfortable. The semi-rural life of large noble estates became a thing of the past. The way of life of the merchants became Europeanized. The working population of large cities, who used to live in small houses, began to crowd more and more in stone masses, apartment buildings, renting closets and beds there from the owners of apartments.

In 1898, the housing stock of Moscow was examined. It turned out that out of a million inhabitants of the capital, 200 thousand huddle in the so-called "bed-and-dorm apartments", many in "closets" - rooms with partitions that do not reach the ceiling, many rented separate beds or even "half" beds on which workers slept different shifts. With a worker's wages of 12-20 rubles. the closet cost 6 rubles a month. Single bed - 2 rubles, half bed - 1.5 rubles.

In the planning of rural settlements that have developed over the centuries, the post-reform period did not make significant changes. As before, small villages with wooden huts stretched along the rural street prevailed in the non-chernozem zone. As before, the further north, the smaller the size of the settlements. In the steppe zone, the large size of the villages was determined by the conditions of water supply.

In the village, kerosene lighting was spread. However, kerosene was expensive and the huts were lit with small lamps. In remote corners they continued to burn a torch. The standard of living of peasants in Novorossiya, Samara, Ufa, Orenburg provinces, in the Ciscaucasia and Siberia was significantly higher than in the central provinces. On the whole, the living standard in Russia was low. This is evidenced by the average life expectancy, which lags behind European countries. In the 70s - 90s. in Russia it was 31 years for men, 33 years for women, and in England, respectively, 42 and 55.

STUDY THEORY

FROM THE RULES OF MULTI-THEORETICAL STUDY

1. Comprehension of objective historical facts is subjective.

2. Subjectively, three theories of study are distinguished: religious, world-historical (directions: materialistic, liberal, technological), local-historical.

3. Each theory offers its own understanding of history: it has its own periodization, its own conceptual apparatus, its own literature, its own explanations of historical facts.

LITERATURE OF VARIOUS THEORIES

Buganov V.I., Zyryanov P.N. History of Russia, late 17th-19th centuries: Textbook. for 10 cl. general education. institutions / Ed. A.N. Sakharov. 4th ed. M., 1998 (universal). G.V. Vernadsky Russian history: Textbook. M., 1997 (local). Ionov I.N. Russian civilization, IX - early XX centuries: Textbook. book for 10-11 cl. general education. institutions. M., 1995; A.A. Kornilov History course Russia XIX century. M., 1993 (liberal). History of the USSR XIX - early XX century. Textbook. /Under. ed. I. A. Fedosov. M., 1981; Munchaev Sh. M., Ustinov V. V. History of Russia. M., 2000; Markova A. N., Skvortsova E. M., Andreeva I. A. History of Russia. M., 2001 (materialistic).

1. Monographs: Great Reforms in Russia 1856-1874. M., 1992 (liberal). Power and reforms. From autocracy to Soviet Russia. SPb., 1996 (liberal). Choosing a path. History of Russia 1861-1938 / Ed. O.A. Vaskovsky, A.T. Tertyshny. Yekaterinburg, 1995 (liberal). A.V. Kartashov History of the Russian Church: In 2 volumes. M., 1992-1993 (religious). Litvak B.G. The coup of 1861 in Russia: why the reformist alternative was not realized. M., 1991 (liberal). Lyashenko L.M. Tsar-liberator. The life and work of Alexander II. M., 1994 (liberal). Medushevsky A.M. Democracy and Authoritarianism: Russian Constitutionalism in a Comparative Perspective. M., 1997 (liberal). Shulgin V.S., Koshman L.V., Zezina M.R. Culture of Russia IX - XX centuries. M., 1996 (liberal). Eidelman N. Ya. Revolution from above in Russia. M., 1989 (liberal). Pipes R. Russia under the old regime. M., 1993 (liberal). Modernization: foreign experience and Russia / Otv. ed. Krasil'shchikov V.A.M., 1994 (technological).

2. Articles: Zakharova L.S. Russia at the Turning Point (Autocracy and Reforms of 1861-1874) // History of the Fatherland: People, Ideas, Solutions. Essays on the history of Russia in the 9th - early 20th centuries. Compiled by S.V. Mironenko. M., 1991 (liberal). Litvak B.G. Reforms and revolutions in Russia // History of the USSR, 1991, No. 2 (liberal). Potkina I.V., Selunskaya N.B. Russia and modernization // History of the USSR, 1990, No. 4 (liberal).

EXPLANATION OF HISTORICAL FACTS

IN DIFFERENT STUDY THEORIES

Each theory chooses its facts from a variety of historical facts, builds its own causal relationship, has its own explanations in literature, historiography, studies its historical experience, makes its own conclusions and forecasts for the future.

REASONS FOR CANCELING THE CASTLE LAW

Religious-historical theory studies the movement of a person towards God.

Orthodox historians (A. V. Kartashov and others) interpret the abolition of serfdom and subsequent reforms positively, as "the will of God." At the same time, supporters of the theory of official nationality, based on the principles of “Autocracy. Orthodoxy. Nationality ”, the events of the second half of the century were perceived as an encroachment on the traditional foundations of the state. The main ideologist of the autocracy K.P. Pobedonostsev, who controlled power for 24 years, came out as an ardent opponent of all transformations, including the abolition of serfdom, calling them a "criminal mistake."

Historians of world-historical theory, proceeding from one-line progress, positively assess the processes of the second half of the XIX century. However, the emphasis is placed in different ways in explaining the events.

Materialist historians (I.A.Fedosov and others) define the period of abolition of serfdom as a sharp transition from a feudal socio-economic formation to a capitalist one. They believe that the abolition of serfdom in Russia was late, and the reforms that followed it were carried out slowly and incompletely. The half-heartedness in carrying out the reforms aroused the indignation of the advanced part of society - the intelligentsia, which then turned into terror against the tsar. The revolutionary Marxists believed that the country was "led" along the wrong path of development - "the slow cutting off of rotting parts", but it was necessary to "lead" along the path of a radical solution of problems - confiscation and nationalization of the landlords' lands, the destruction of the autocracy, etc.

Liberal historians, contemporaries of events, V.O. Klyuchevsky (1841-1911), S.F. Platonov (1860-1933) and others, welcomed both the abolition of serfdom and subsequent reforms. The defeat in the Crimean War, they believed, revealed Russia's technical lag behind the West and undermined the country's international prestige.

Later, liberal historians (I. N. Ionov, R. Pipes, and others) began to note that in the middle of the nineteenth century, serfdom reached the highest point of economic efficiency. The reasons for the abolition of serfdom are political. The defeat of Russia in the Crimean War dispelled the myth about the military power of the Empire, caused irritation in society and a threat to the country's stability. The interpretation focuses on the cost of reforms. Thus, the people were not historically prepared for drastic socio-economic changes and “painfully” perceived the changes in their lives. The government, however, had no right to abolish serfdom and carry out reforms without comprehensive social and moral training of the entire people, especially the nobles and peasants. According to liberals, the centuries-old way of life in Russia cannot be changed by force.

ON. Nekrasov in the poem "Who Lives Well in Russia" writes:

The great chain has broken,

broke and hit:

one end by the master,

others - for a man! ...

Technological historians (V.A.Krasil'shchikov, S.A. Nefedov, etc.) believe that the abolition of serfdom and subsequent reforms are due to the stage of Russia's modernization transition from a traditional (agrarian) society to an industrial one. The transition from traditional to industrial society in Russia was carried out by the state during the period of influence from the 17th-18th centuries. European cultural and technological circle (modernization - Westernization) and acquired the form of Europeanization, that is, a conscious change in traditional national forms according to the European model.

The "machine" progress in Western Europe "forced" tsarism to actively enforce the industrial order. And this determined the specifics of modernization in Russia. The Russian state, selectively borrowing technical and organizational elements from the West, simultaneously preserved traditional structures. As a result, the country has developed a situation of “overlapping historical eras”(Industrial - agrarian), which later led to social upheavals.

Industrial society, introduced by the state at the expense of the peasants, came into sharp contradiction with all the fundamental conditions of Russian life and should inevitably generate a protest both against the autocracy, which did not give the desired freedom to the peasant, and against the private owner, a figure previously alien to Russian life. The industrial workers who appeared in Russia as a result of industrial development inherited the hatred of the entire Russian peasantry with its centuries-old communal psychology for private property.

Tsarism is interpreted as a regime forced to begin industrialization, but failed to cope with its consequences.

Local historical theory studies the unity of man and territory, which constitutes the concept of local civilization.

The theory is represented by the works of Slavophiles and populists. Historians believed that Russia, unlike Western countries, is following its own, special path of development. They substantiated the possibility in Russia of a non-capitalist path of development to socialism through the peasant community.

Comparative theoretical scheme

subject of study + historical fact= theoretical interpretation

Reasons for the abolition of serfdom

and reforms of Alexander II

Name	Item studying	Interpretations of fact
Religious-historical (Christian)	The movement of humanity towards God	The official church welcomed the abolition of serfdom and subsequent reforms. And supporters of the theory “Orthodoxy. Autocracy. Nationality "was considered a" criminal mistake "
World Historical:	Worldwide development, human progress	Positive attitude towards the abolition of serfdom
Materialistic direction	Development of society, social relations associated with forms of ownership. Class struggle	The abolition of serfdom and subsequent reforms matured economically and marked the transition from feudalism to capitalism. Unlike Western Europe in Russia this transition was late
Liberal direction	Personal development and ensuring its individual freedoms	The defeat of Russia in the Crimean War dispelled the myth about the military power of the empire, caused irritation in society and destabilized the country. But serfdom itself has reached the highest point of economic efficiency. The abolition of serfdom and reforms were caused not by economic, but by political motives. The cost of violent transformation is high, since the people were not ready for social about-economic changes. Lessons -no need to speed up the socio-economic development of the country
Technological direction	Technological development, scientific discoveries	The abolition of serfdom and subsequent reforms were caused by the transition of Russia from a traditional society to an industrial one. Russia was in the second echelon of countries that embarked on the path of industrial modernization
Local Historical	Unity of Humanity and Territory	He welcomes the abolition of serfdom, but believes that the focus of reforms on the development of entrepreneurship is erroneous. The Narodniks believed that a non-capitalist path of development through the peasant community was possible in Russia.

"Great reforms" of Alexander II

60 - 70s of the XIX century - the time of radical transformations in Russia, which affected almost all the most important aspects of life, both society and the state.

The lost Crimean War served as a pretext for the transformation. The defeat of Russia in the war showed the complete failure of the political and economic system of Russia. The abolition of serfdom (peasant reform) is central to the transformations of Alexander II.

Reasons for the abolition of serfdom:

1. Serfdom was immoral and condemned by all strata of Russian society.
2. The preservation of serfdom made it impossible to modernize the country and overcome its technical and economic backwardness.
3. The labor of serfs was unproductive and therefore unprofitable.
4. Since the dependent peasants were deprived of the opportunity to fully participate in market relations, serfdom determined the narrowness of the domestic market and hindered the development of capitalism.
5. The continuation of the feudal policy created the threat of a repetition of the Pugachev regime.
6. Serfdom, very similar to slavery, undermined the international authority of Russia.

In January 1857, Alexander II established Secret Committee on Peasant Affairs... At the end of 1857, a decree was issued "On the organization and improvement of the life of the landlord peasants" (" Rescript to Nazimov») According to which in each province, from among the local landowners, provincial editorial commissions were formed to develop a project for the abolition of serfdom. In February 1858, the Secret Committee was reorganized into the Main Committee for Peasant Affairs.

The drafts drawn up in the provincial committees, in 1859, were submitted for generalization to the editorial commissions formed under the Main Committee.

A significant role in the commissions was played by liberal-minded figures - Ya.I. Rostovtsev (chairman of the commission) and, who replaced him in this post, N.A. Milyutin.

February 19, 1861 Alexander II signed “ Provisions on peasants emerging from serfdom" and " Manifesto»About the liberation of the peasants.

The main provisions of the peasant reform:

1. The peasants received personal freedom (no ransom).
2. The peasants received the land allotment for a ransom. The peasant had to pay about 20% of the ransom to the landlord at a time. The remaining amount was received on credit from the state for 49 years.
3. Before the redemption of the land, the peasant was considered “ temporarily liable"In relation to the landowner, ie continued to carry feudal duties: he paid a quitrent (“ share rent") And worked out corvee (" working off»).
4. The redeemed land passed into the ownership of the peasant community. The right to private ownership of land was the privilege of only the noble landowners.
5. The "regulation" determined the minimum of land that the landowners should keep for themselves. In the chernozem zone, it was 2/3 of the land, in the non-chernozem zone –1/2, in the steppe - 1/3.
6. If the pre-reform land peasant allotment exceeded the post-reform one, then the surplus went to the landowner (the so-called " segments»).
7. The relationship between peasants and landlords was regulated " Charter certificates". They determined the size of allotments and duties. The landowner signed the letter not with each individual peasant, but with the community.
8. The peasants received the right to engage in entrepreneurship, to enter into any legal relationship, to transfer to other estates.

In 1863, under the same conditions, the appanage (tsarist) peasants were released.

In 1866 the state peasants were given freedom. They did not have to buy their land, but were heavily taxed.

The peasant reform was the result of a compromise between the interests of landlords, peasants and the government. Moreover, the interests of the landowners were taken into account as much as possible.

One of the consequences of the reform was the massive ruin of the landlord households. The nobles simply could not properly dispose of the redemption payments and rebuild their production in a capitalist way.

The burden of peasants with various payments and obligations, peasant land shortages, agrarian overpopulation caused by the preservation of the community, and the presence of large landowners' land tenure became sources of constant conflicts between peasants and landowners (the so-called. agrarian question).

The reform prevented mass demonstrations of the peasants, although local ones did take place. The most significant of them date back to 1861 - peasant uprisings in the village of Bezdna, Kazan province and Kandeevka, Penza province.

Zemskaya reform of 1864

The main reasons for the Zemstvo reform was the need to create an effective system of local self-government and the improvement of the Russian countryside. In the provinces and counties, local self-government bodies were created - provincial and district Zemsky assemblies. Zemstvo vowels (deputies) were elected by curiae. Most of the deputies were representatives of the landowning curia, i.e. The zemstvo reform increased the political influence of the landowners (this was one of the goals of the reform), however, the zemstvo bodies were considered all-estates.

Zemstvos were in charge of issues of local economy, trade, industry, health care, public education, organization of charitable institutions, etc. Zemstvos were deprived of any political functions. Inter-provincial associations of zemstvos were prohibited.

Zemskaya reform is an attempt to create a new system of local self-government based on all-estates representation. Subsequently, zemstvo institutions became centers of liberal opposition to the government.

V 1870 The city reform was carried out, in accordance with which city Dumas were created - an analogue of Zemsky assemblies in the city.

Judicial reform of 1864

It was based on the following principles: the wordlessness of the court, the equality of all subjects before the law, the independence of the court from the administration, the creation of a court jurors and the institute of attorneys at law (advocates).

During the reform process, Magistrates' Courts for peasants, established in the counties. They dealt with minor criminal offenses and civil cases. Justices of the peace were elected by district zemstvo assemblies.

Criminal decisions in the district courts were taken by jurors who delivered a verdict to the accused. They were elected according to special lists from persons of different classes.

Functions supreme court received the Senate.

The trial became transparent and adversarial. This meant that the prosecutor (state prosecutor) was confronted by a lawyer independent of the administration.

In accordance with the judicial reform, the institution of notaries was created.

The judicial reform was the most democratic, radical and consistent in the series of reforms of the 60s and 70s.

Military transformations of the 60s - 70s.

Need military reform was determined by the general military-technical backwardness of the Russian army, which posed a threat to Russia's security and undermined its international authority. In addition, the army based on recruitment did not correspond to the new social structure of Russian society. The initiator and leader of the reform was Minister of War D.A. Milyutin.

In the course of the reform, military settlements were abolished, military districts were created (headed by commanders-in-chief), the War Ministry and the main headquarters were reorganized, and cadets and military schools were established. The military industry began to develop rapidly.

The central link in the military reform was the introduction of 1874 g. universal conscription, which extended to the entire male population over the age of 20. The service life was 6 years in the ground forces and 7 years in the navy. For those who had education and depending on its level, the service life was reduced from 4 years to 6 months.

The transformations in the army became an important factor in the democratization of society, the modernization of the army, and contributed to an increase in its combat capability - all this was fully manifested in the war with Turkey in 1877-1878.

Significant changes have been made to the education system. The university charter of 1863 expanded the autonomy of universities. In accordance with the Charter of the secondary school (1864), gymnasiums were subdivided into classical and real. The first prepared mainly for entering the university, the second - for higher technical educational institutions.

In 1865, a censorship reform was carried out. Pre-censorship was abolished for most of the books and literary magazines.

Reforms of the 1860s and 70s significantly advanced Russia along the path of economic and political modernization. However, the political restructuring of the country was not completed. Russia still remained an autocratic monarchy. There were no mechanisms for society to influence government policy.

Socio-economic development of post-reform Russia

Reforms of the 60s - 70s created favorable conditions for the development of the country's economy and the formation of capitalist relations.

Railway construction was the most important area of ​​economic development in post-reform Russia, since this new type of transport made it possible to significantly facilitate the export of grain and strengthen the country's defense capability. V 1851 The railway from St. Petersburg to Moscow was opened.

In the 60s. the "railway fever" began - a real boom in railway construction. Private capital, including foreign, was widely attracted to this industry. Moscow became the center of the railway network. In 1869, a road was put into operation, connecting Moscow with the southern grain-growing provinces of southern Russia.

A new stage of enhanced railway construction began in the 90s. Minister of Finance S.Yu. Witte (the author of the monetary reform (the introduction of the gold equivalent of the ruble), later the Prime Minister) attached special importance to it. Now it was conducted mainly at public expense. In 1891, the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway began. In 1896, construction began in Manchuria of the Chinese Eastern Railway (CER) - the eastern branch of the Transsib.

The abolition of serfdom caused a short hitch in the industrial development of the country. possessory peasants left the manufactory. Soon, however, industrial development revived. The most significant advances were observed in the textile industry, which at that time was the leading branch of Russian industry. Significant growth was observed in the food industry, especially in the sugar industry.

It was very difficult for the metallurgical industry to adapt to the new conditions, where it was required not only to switch to civilian labor, but also to carry out technical re-equipment. Many Ural factories are falling into decay. However, at the same time (from the mid-70s) a new center of industrial production began to form in the Donetsk basin.

The Russian economy gradually entered the world economy and began to experience cyclical fluctuations in its development. V 1873 For the first time, Russia was affected by the world industrial crisis.

In the first post-reform 20 years, the main industrial regions of Russia were finally formed - Moscow, Petersburg, Ural and Southern (Donbass). The textile industry prevailed in the Moscow region. In St. Petersburg - metalworking and mechanical engineering. The Ural and Southern regions were the base of the metallurgical industry.

To the beginning 1890 -x years in Russia ends, which began back in 1830-40 biennium, industrial revolution, i.e. transition from manufacture to factory, from manual to machine labor. It had an industrial revolution and social consequences - there was a transition from the estate structure of society to a class one. The main classes of society were the proletariat and the bourgeoisie.

The agricultural development of Russia in the post-reform period was not so successful. It was especially difficult in the black earth regions, where the peasants had difficulty in switching to new methods of farming.

Landlord households remained the main supplier of export grain. This indicates that the development of agriculture in Russia proceeded mainly along Prussian paths.

Signs of the Prussian path of development of capitalism in agriculture:

• Large allotments - latifundia.
• The owners of the latifundia are privileged landowners-latifundists.
• Numerous low-paid wage laborers (farm laborers) or slaves (as in the United States or in pre-reform Russia) process the plots.

Only in the steppe Trans-Volga region and in the North Caucasus, where landlordism was weak or did not exist at all, agriculture developed according to American(farmer's) way. These areas became the breadbasket of Russia and the main supplier of grain for export.

Signs of the American way of development of capitalism in agriculture:

• The small size of the allotment.
• The allotment belongs to the farmer. In Russia they are called kulaks.
• The farmer himself and a few farm laborers work on the allotment.

After the reform of 1861, the social differentiation- the process of separating the rural bourgeoisie from the general mass of the peasantry ( fists), owners of strong peasant farms serving their own needs ( middle peasants) and the rural poor ( farm laborers).

The development of capitalism in the countryside was hampered by the preservation of the community ("rural society"). The community acted as the owner of the land. She was engaged in the distribution of land plots (in order to equalize the chances of a good harvest, the peasants received land in strips, that is, in different parts of the communal lands). The main organs of communal administration were the village gathering and the village headman elected by it. One of the fundamental principles for the community was the principle of mutual responsibility.

Social movement of the second half of the 50-60s of the XIX century.

The reforms of Alexander II provoked opposition from the conservatives. The brightest representative of this trend was M.N. Katkov is the editor of Moskovskiye Vedomosti, who left after the Polish uprising of 1863-1864. camp of liberals. He believed that the reforms led to the separation of the intelligentsia from the people and violated the previously existing unity of the people with the tsar.

In the second half of the XIX century. in Russia, the ideas of liberalism are further developed, which are approved in a number of zemstvos. Liberal zemstvo leaders put forward the slogan "positive work in the localities", and attempts were also made to create an all-Russian zemstvo center. The main goal of the Russian liberals was to establish a constitutional government. The most famous figures of the liberal zemstvo movement were I.I. Petrunkevich, D.N. Shipov, B.N. Chicherin, K. D. Kavelin.

At the same time, a significant part of educated society was captured by revolutionary sentiments. This direction of the social movement quickly lost its noble character. Children of peasants, burghers, clergy, impoverished nobility quickly turned into intellectuals - raznochintsy standing outside the estates. Parting with their past, they quickly ceased to respect the foundations, traditions ( nihilism). The mood of general pessimism and hatred of the state was intensified by the introduction in 1861 of high tuition fees at universities. It was the diverse intelligentsia that became the main base of the revolutionary movement in post-reform Russia.

The reform of 1861 in no way satisfied the radical public. Chernyshevsky becomes her idol and inspirer. Obviously, he was the main organizer of the "proclamation campaign" of 1861. The proclamations circulated in Moscow and St. Petersburg contained demands for more decisive and consistent reforms, supported by the threat of a popular uprising. In response, the authorities in 1861-1862. made a number of arrests, Chernyshevsky was sentenced to hard labor. Throughout the 1860s. the radical intelligentsia tried several times to create a strong organization. However, neither the "Land and Freedom" group (1861-1863, organization of Chernyshevsky), nor the circle of N.A. Ishutin (whose member D.V. Karakozov shot Alexander II in 1866), nor the People's Massacre (1869) under the leadership of S.T. Nechaev (members of the organization killed student Ivanov on suspicion of betrayal). S.T. Nechaev is the author of the book “ Revolutionary catechism».

Revolutionary populism

At the turn of the 1860-1870s. the formation of the ideology of revolutionary populism takes place. It found its complete expression in the works of M.A. Bakunin, P.L. Lavrov, P.N. Tkacheva. Firmly convinced that humanity in its development must inevitably come to socialism, these ideologues pinned special hopes on the peasant community in Russia, considering it as the embryo of socialism (the theory of "communal socialism" by AI Herzen). It was characteristic of the populists negative attitude to capitalism, which could destroy the peasant community. While agreeing on the basic theoretical principles, the leading ideologues of populism proposed various means for their implementation.

M.A. Bakunin ( 6Untar trend of populism) saw such a means in an immediate peasant revolt, to which the peasants should be inspired by their example by the revolutionary intelligentsia. At the same time, Bakunin and his supporters denied the need for a state, relying on community self-government. M.A. Bakunin and his colleague P. Kropotkin became the founders of Russian anarchism.

P.L. Lavrov ( propaganda direction) supported the idea of ​​a peasant revolution and viewed intellectual revolutionaries as a force capable of inspiring the popular masses to participate in it through prolonged propaganda.

P.N. Tkachev ( conspiratorial direction) proceeded from the fact that the gap between the people and the intelligentsia is too significant and, in essence, insurmountable. It is impossible to rouse the peasants to a conscious revolutionary movement. The community must be liberated by the intelligentsia, seizing power by means of an armed coup and carrying out the necessary transformations from above.

In the late 1860s - early 1870s. in Russia, among the student community, a number of populist circles arose. V 1874 d. their members begin mass going to the people, with the aim of conducting revolutionary propaganda. However, it was not possible to rouse the peasants to the revolution - all their calls were met with distrust and hostility in the peasant environment. The reason for this lay in the persisting belief in the "good tsar" among the peasantry.

After an unsuccessful visit to the people, the populists decide to change their tactics and go to “ sedentary»(Constant, systematic) propaganda. V 1876 g. arises " Earth and Will"(Second) - an organization that played the role of a coordinating center for populist propaganda. Her unsuccessful activity leads the Narodniks to the idea of ​​the need to abandon propaganda methods of struggle. V 1879 During the year, the “Earth and Freedom” split into “Black redistribution” and “Narodnaya Volya”.

« Black redistribution", The leaders of which were G.V. Plekhanov, P.B. Axelrod and V.I. Zasulich, remained in the position of propaganda. Soon its members left Russia and in 1883 created the first Russian Marxist organization in Geneva " Liberation of labor».

« People's will”United the populists - supporters of the tactics of individual terror. This method of struggle existed earlier as a disorganizing method of work of "Earth and Freedom". The most famous terrorist of that time was V. Zasulich (later - a member of the "Black Redistribution"), who in 1878 G. made an attempt on the life of the St. Petersburg mayor D.F. Trepova. Later, the jury acquitted Zasulich, thereby justifying political terror in general. Zasulich herself later retired from terror.

A.I. Zhelyabov, A.D. Mikhailov, S.L. Perovskaya and V.N. Figner.

Narodnaya Volya's activities led to government retaliatory measures. Not wanting to completely curtail the reformist policy, Alexander II begins to pursue a kind of policy (“ Dictatorship of the heart"). On February 12, 1880, the Supreme Administrative Commission was formed. It was headed by MT Loris-Melikov, who, on the one hand, continued his merciless struggle against the revolutionary underground; on the other, he took a number of measures to mitigate censorship and arbitrariness of the local administration. In addition, Loris-Melikov presented the tsar with a draft of democratic reforms, which provides, in particular, for the convocation of a central all-Russian zemstvo body (“ Constitution of Loris-Melikov"). It was greeted with enthusiasm by the liberals and approved by Alexander II.

March 1, 1881 Alexander II was killed by the People's Will. His son Alexander III came to power. Loris-Melikov's project was rejected. Reaction reigned in the country, and the populist organizations were routed. People's Will Perovskaya, Mikhailov, Kibalchich, Zhelyabov and Rysakov were hanged.

In the post-reform period, under conditions of intensive industrial development, the workers' movement became a noticeable phenomenon of social life. In 1875, the "South Russian Union of Workers" (headed by E.O. Zaslavsky) emerged in Odessa, and in 1878 in St. Petersburg, the "Northern Union of Russian Workers" (V.P. Obnorsky, SN Khalturin). Their participants advocated the overthrow of the autocracy, political freedoms, and social reconstruction. The workers' organizations, being essentially Marxist, during this period were under strong influence populists.

In the 80s. the labor movement takes on a more organized character, mass strikes begin. The most significant of these occurred in 1885 at the Morozov textile factory in Ivanovo-Voznesensk ("Morozovskaya strike"). In the 90s. there is a new upsurge in the strike movement. The workers' speeches pushed the government to pass a number of laws.

Internal policy of the autocracy at the end of the 19th century.

The reign of Alexander III (1881 - 1894) went down in history as the time of "counter-reforms". The ideologists of the new political course were the Chief Prosecutor of the Synod K.P. Pobedonostsev (educator of the new emperor), Minister of Internal Affairs D.A. Tolstoy, a well-known publicist and public figure M.N. Katkov, who considered any borrowing from the West harmful and insisted on adjusting the reforms already carried out.

The practical implementation of the new course boiled down to the following:

1. Introduction of the Institute of Zemsky Chiefs ( 1889 ). They were appointed by the Minister of the Interior from among the local noble landowners and exercised administrative and police control and judicial functions over the peasants. The power of the zemstvo chiefs strengthened the positions of the landlords and the government.
2. Zemsky counter-reform ( 1890 ). During elections to zemstvos, the number of vowels from landowners increased due to a decrease in the property qualification. For city dwellers, on the contrary, the qualification increased. All these measures were designed to strengthen the position of the nobility in local government.
3. The property and educational qualifications for jurors were increased, which increased the representation of the nobility (1887).
4. University Charter 1884 effectively abolished the autonomy of universities. Representatives of the "lower estates" found it difficult to get an education. " Cook's Children Circular» ( 1887 ) recommended that the doors of the gymnasium be closed in front of children not from noble families.
5. In accordance with " Regulations on Measures to Protect State Security and Public Peace» ( 1881 ) in any part of the empire a state of emergency could be declared. Local authorities received the right to arrest “suspicious persons”, exile them without trial for up to 5 years to any locality and bring them to court martial, close educational institutions and press organs, and suspend the activities of zemstvos.
6. The attitude towards religious dissent was toughened, the rights of persons of non-Orthodox faith, especially Jews, were limited. The government pursued a policy of forcible Russification of the national borderlands.

Considering the internal policy of Alexander III, it is important to emphasize that the government implemented a number of measures aimed at improving the situation of peasants and workers.

V 1881 All former landowners' peasants were transferred to a compulsory ransom, i.e. temporarily liable relations were canceled. The Peasant Bank was created (1882), which was supposed to provide assistance to peasants and peasant societies in the purchase of private land. In 1883 - 1885 was reduced, and then abolished the poll tax from the peasants.

In the 1980s, the first attempts were made to regulate relations between workers and industrialists, to develop the foundations of labor legislation: the work of minors was prohibited, fines were reduced, and a factory inspection was established to oversee the observance of working conditions.

Foreign policy of Russia in the second half of the XIX century.

After the end of the Crimean War, the main task of Russian foreign policy was to revise the terms of the Paris Peace Treaty (1856). Taking advantage of the contradictions between European states (primarily Prussia and France), Russian diplomacy, headed by A.M. Gorchakov was able to successfully solve this problem by announcing in 1870 d. on refusal to fulfill the conditions of the Paris Treaty. Already at the beginning of the 1870s. Russia is creating a military fleet on the Black Sea, restoring destroyed fortresses and starting to resolve the Eastern question.

1877-1878 biennium - the last Russian-Turkish war.

Causes of the war:

1. Russia's desire to resolve the Eastern question.
2. The need to assist the fraternal Balkan peoples in their liberation struggle against the Ottoman yoke.
3. Russia is faced with the task of returning South Bessarabia, lost as a result of the Crimean War.
4. Russia seeks to regain the international authority lost after the defeat in the Crimean War.

April 12, 1877 Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire. The fighting took place simultaneously in the Balkans (under the leadership of I.V. Gurko and M.D. Skobelev) and in the Transcaucasus (M.T.Loris-Melikov). The main events of the war were the defense of the Shipka Pass and the siege of the Turkish fortress of Plevna (it was possible to take it only in November 1877, E.I. Totleben took part in the siege). The fortresses of Batum and Erzurum were captured in Transcaucasia. V February 1878 in the town San Stefano near Constantinople, an agreement was signed, according to which Serbia, Montenegro and Romania received full independence. Bulgaria became an autonomous principality. South Bessarabia was returning to Russia.

However, the strengthening of Russia in the Balkans and in the Middle East region frightened the Western European powers and, above all, Germany. They protested against the terms of the San Stefano Treaty. Summer 1878 A congress was held in Berlin, at which Russia found itself in complete isolation. As a result, the Treaty of San Stefano was revised. Serbia, Montenegro and Romania retained their independence, but Bulgaria was divided into two parts: the North received full autonomy, and the South remained a Turkish province. The colonies of Turkey were divided among the European states.

At the end of the nineteenth century. The German Empire is growing stronger and is beginning to be perceived by the Russian government as the most dangerous enemy. Also in 1873 Russia agrees to create " Union of three emperors"With the participation of Austria-Hungary and Germany, hoping in this way to prevent the aggravation of relations with them. However, the disagreements between its members turned out to be too great and in 1878 the "Union" collapsed.

In 1882 Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy concluded the so-called. Triple Alliance directed against France, but also threatened Russia.

The Russian government was forced to start looking for an ally, now for a joint struggle against the Triple Alliance. In 1891-92. a Franco-Russian union is created. This was the beginning Entente(from French - consent), opposing the Triple Alliance.

An important task facing the Russian Foreign Ministry was the demarcation (clear definition) of the border with China. V 1858 The Aigun Treaty was signed, according to which the border was drawn along the Amur River. The Ussuri taiga and the mouth of the Amur remained in the joint possession of both states. V 1860 city ​​- Beijing Treaty. Taking advantage of China's weakness, Russia annexes the Ussuri taiga and the mouth of the Amur.

Another area of ​​foreign policy was the accession of Central Asia.

In 1864, the Emirate of Bukhara and the Khiva Khanate, having suffered a series of military defeats, recognized their vassal dependence on Russia. The Kokand Khanate, which declared a ghazavat to Russia, was destroyed as a state: in 1876 its lands were included in the Turkestan Territory. The struggle against the Turkmen tribes ended only in 1881, when M.D. Skobelev captured Ashgabat and Geok-Tepe.

Joining Russia became a boon for the local population: feudal strife ceased; blood feud began to recede into the past; slavery was abolished. The local population retained their language, religion, culture, and national customs.

V 1867 Alaska was sold to the United States for $ 7.2 million.

Culture of the second half of the 19th century

The basis of secondary education was still formed by gymnasiums, real and commercial schools. However, only gymnasiums were allowed to enter the university. In 1878, the Higher Women's (Bestuzhev) Courses were opened, which laid the foundation for women's higher education.

Russian science and technology in the post-reform period was represented by a whole galaxy of outstanding scientists. In the field of mathematics, P.L. Chebyshev, A.M. Lyapunov, S.V. Kovalevskaya (the world's first woman professor of mathematics). In chemical science A.M. Butlerov proposed a theory of the chemical structure of substances, D.I. Mendeleev discovered the periodic law of chemical elements.

Major scientific discoveries have been made in physics. A.G. Stoletov investigated and described photoelectric phenomena. P.N. Yablochkov created an arc lamp and for the first time carried out the transformation of alternating current. A.N. Lodygin designed an incandescent lamp. The main direction of A.S. Popova was the study of electromagnetic phenomena, its result was the invention of radio. The works of N.I. Zhukovsky, the founder of modern hydro and aeromechanics. First design experiences aircraft(aircraft) were produced by A.F. Mozhaisky.

The biological sciences during this period developed under the influence of evolutionary teachings. The works of I.I. Mechnikov in evolutionary embryology, pathology and immunology were recognized by scientists around the world. I.M. Sechenov. One of the directions of his scientific activity was the study of the human psyche. I.P. Pavlov carried out wide experimental research in higher nervous activity and formulated the main provisions of the theory of conditioned reflexes. The development of agronomic science is associated with the names of V.V. Dokuchaev (founder of modern soil science) and K.A. Timiryazeva (researcher of plant physiology).

New generalizing works on Russian history appear: the 29-volume " History of Russia since ancient times" CM. Solovyov and " Russian history course"His student V.O. Klyuchevsky. Such outstanding representatives of Russian historical science as S.F. Platonov and M.N. Pokrovsky. The works of M.M. Kovalevsky on general history.

Russian geographers and travelers continue their exploration of little-explored territories of our planet. Admiral F.P. Litke carried out a survey of Kamchatka, Chukotka and some islands in the northern part of the Pacific Ocean. N.M. Przhevalsky, P.K. Kozlov, P.P. Semenov-Tyanshansky during his travels studied the regions of Central and Central Asia. N.N. Miklouho-Maclay is the coast of New Guinea and the Pacific Islands.

The main process taking place in Russian literature and art of this period was democratization. Artistic culture takes on a simpler, more accessible character.

Second half of the 19th century - the most important stage in the development of Russian literature. The creativity of L.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.P. Chekhov, I.S. Turgenev, E. Saltykova-Shchedrin, A.A. Feta and many others had a tremendous influence on Russian and world literature.

In painting, as well as in literature, the realistic direction becomes dominant. V 1870 g. arises " Association of Traveling Exhibitions", Which united the majority of realist artists - IN. Kramskoy (portrait of Leo Tolstoy), A.K. Savrasov (" The Rooks Have Arrived"), I.E. Repin ( "Barge Haulers on the Volga", "They Didn't Expect", "The Cossacks are Writing a Letter Turkish Sultan» ), IN AND. Surikov ( "Boyarynya Morozova", "Morning of the Strelets' Execution", "The Conquest of Siberia by Yermak"), who opposed "academicism" in the visual arts.

In terms of his aesthetic views, the outstanding Russian sculptor M.M. Antokolsky. He is the author of sculptural portraits "Ermak", "Nestor the Chronicler", "Ivan the Terrible".

Designed by M.O. Mikeshin, a monument was erected in Novgorod " Millennium of Russia". Mikeshin was also the author of monuments to Catherine II in St. Petersburg and to Bohdan Khmelnitsky in Kiev. Monuments erected according to the designs of A.M. Opekushin (Pushkin - in Moscow and Lermontov - in Pyatigorsk).

The use of folk motives was distinguished during these years in musical art. The motives of folk music were most vividly presented in the operas of A.S. Dargomyzhsky (" Mermaid"), M.P. Mussorgsky (" Boris Godunov"), ON. Rimsky-Korsa¬kov (" Tsar's bride"), A.P. Borodin (" Prince Igor"), Who formed a circle of musicians known as" Mighty bunch". The most popular during these years was the work of P.I. Tchaikovsky, who created outstanding opera ( "Eugene Onegin", "The Queen of Spades"), ballet ( "Swan Lake", "Nutcracker") and symphonic (1st Concerto for Piano and Orchestra) works.

Eclecticism dominated in a number of architectural styles (combination of features of different styles in one work). The pseudo-Russian style became a kind of eclecticism.

Buildings in Moscow became examples of this style. Historical Museum(architects A.A.Semenov and V.O.Sherwood), City Duma(architect D.N. Chichagov), the current Gumma(architect A.N. Pomerantsev).

For the widest strata of Russian society, theater was one of the most accessible forms of art. The repertoire of both metropolitan and provincial theaters was based on plays by A.N. Ostrovsky, A.P. Chekhov, N.V. Gogol. Realistic traditions in acting, founded by M.S. Shchepkin, were successfully continued and developed by the outstanding Russian actors M.P. and O.O. Sadovskiy, G.N. Fedotova, M.N. Ermolova, P.A. Strepetova. The Maly Theater in Moscow was rightfully considered the center of theatrical life in Russia.

The position of Russia in the second half of the 19th century remained extremely difficult: it stood on the edge of an abyss. The economy and finances were undermined by the Crimean War, and the national economy chained by serfdom could not develop.

The legacy of Nicholas I

The years of the reign of Nicholas I are considered the most unfavorable since the Time of Troubles. An ardent opponent of any reforms and the introduction of a constitution in the country, the Russian emperor relied on a ramified bureaucratic bureaucratic apparatus. the ideology of Nicholas I was based on the thesis “the people and the tsar are one”. The result of the reign of Nicholas I was the economic backwardness of Russia from the countries of Europe, the general illiteracy of the population and the arbitrariness of the local authorities in all spheres of public life.

It was necessary to urgently solve the following tasks:

• In foreign policy, to restore the international prestige of Russia. Overcome the country's diplomatic isolation.
• In domestic policy, create all conditions for stabilizing domestic economic growth. Solve the sore peasant question. To overcome the lag behind Western countries in the industrial sector through the introduction of new technologies.
• When solving internal problems, the government involuntarily had to deal with the interests of the nobility. Therefore, the mood of this class also had to be taken into account.

After the reign of Nicholas I, Russia needed a breath of fresh air, the country needed reforms. The new emperor Alexander II understood this.

Russia in the reign of Alexander II

The beginning of the reign of Alexander II was marked by unrest in Poland. In 1863, the Poles revolted. Despite the protest of the Western powers, the Russian emperor brought an army into the territory of Poland and suppressed the rebellion.

TOP-5 articleswho read along with this

The manifesto abolishing serfdom on February 19, 1861 immortalized the name of Alexander. The law made all classes of citizens equal before the law, and now all segments of the population bore the same state duties.

• After a partial solution of the peasant problem, local government reforms were carried out. In 1864, the Zemskaya reform was carried out. This transformation made it possible to reduce the pressure of the bureaucratic apparatus on local authorities and made it possible to solve most of the economic problems at the local level.
• In 1863, judicial reforms were carried out. The court became an independent authority and was appointed by the Senate and the tsar for life.
• Under Alexander II, many educational institutions were opened, Sunday schools were built for workers, secondary schools appeared.
• The reforms also affected the army: the sovereign changed 25 years of service in the army from 25 to 15 years. Corporal punishment in the army and navy has been abolished.
• During the reign of Alexander II, Russia achieved significant success in foreign policy. The Western and Eastern Caucasus, part of Central Asia, were annexed. Having defeated Turkey in the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, the Russian Empire restored the Black Sea fleet and seized the Bosphorus and Dardanelles straits in the Black Sea.

Under Alexander II, the development of industry was intensified, bankers were trying to invest in metallurgy and in the construction of railways. At the same time, there was a certain decline in agriculture, as the freed peasants were forced to rent land from their former owners. As a result, most of the peasants went bankrupt and went to the city to work with their families.

Rice. 1. Russian Emperor Alexander II.

Social movements in the second half of the 19th century

The transformations of Alexander II contributed to the awakening of revolutionary and liberal forces in Russian society. The social movement of the second half of the 19th century is divided into three main streams :

• Conservative course. The founder of this ideology was Katkov, later he was joined by D.A. Tolstoy and K.P. Pobedonostsev. Conservatives believed that Russia can develop only according to three criteria - autocracy, nationality and Orthodoxy.
• Liberal movement. The founder of this trend was the prominent historian BN Chicherin, later he was joined by KD Kavelin and SA Muromtsev. Liberals fought for a constitutional monarchy, the right of the individual and the independence of the church from the state.
• Revolutionary current. The ideologists of this trend were originally A.I. Herzen, N.G. Chernyshevsky and V.G. Belinsky. Later they were joined by N. A. Dobrolyubov. Under Alexander II, thinkers published the Kolokol and Sovremennik magazines. The views of theoretical writers were based on a complete rejection of capitalism and autocracy as historical systems. They believed that prosperity for everyone would come only under socialism, and socialism would come immediately, bypassing the stage of capitalism, and the peasantry would help it in this.

One of the founders of the revolutionary movement was M.A. Bakunin, who preached socialist anarchy. He believed that civilized states should be destroyed in order to build a new world Federation of Communities in their place. The end of the 19th century brought the organization of secret revolutionary circles, the largest of which were "Land and Freedom", "Great Russian", "People's Repression", "Ruble Society" and so on. The introduction of revolutionaries into the peasant environment for the purpose of their agitation was promoted.

The peasants did not react in any way to the calls of the commoners for the overthrow of the government. This led to a split of the revolutionaries into two camps - practitioners and theorists. Practitioners staged terrorist attacks and cracked down on prominent statesmen. The organization "Land and Freedom", later renamed "Narodnaya Volya", pronounced the death sentence on Alexander II. The verdict was carried out on March 1, 1881 after several unsuccessful assassination attempts. Terrorist Grinevitsky threw a bomb at the tsar's feet.

Russia in the reign of Alexander III

Alexander III got the state deeply shaken by a series of murders of prominent politicians and police officials. New king immediately began to defeat the revolutionary circles, and their main leaders, Tkachev, Perovskaya and Alexander Ulyanov, were executed.

• Russia, instead of a constitution almost prepared by Alexander II, received a state with a police regime during the reign of his son, Alexander III. The new emperor began a systematic attack on the reforms of his father.
• Since 1884, student circles have been banned in the country, since the government saw the main danger of free-thinking in the student environment.
• The rights of local self-government were revised. The peasants again lost their votes in the election of local deputies. The wealthy merchants sat in the city duma, and the local nobility in the zemstvos.
• Judicial reform has also undergone changes. The court became more closed, judges more dependent on the authorities.
• Alexander III began to impose Great Russian chauvinism. The favorite thesis of the emperor - "Russia for the Russians" was proclaimed. By 1891, pogroms of Jews began with the connivance of the authorities.

Alexander III dreamed of the revival of the absolute monarchy and the onset of the era of reaction. The reign of this king proceeded without wars and international complications. This made it possible to accelerate the development of foreign and domestic trade, cities grew, factories and factories were built. At the end of the 19th century, the length of roads in Russia increased. The construction of the Siberian Railway was begun to connect the central regions of the state with the Pacific coast.

Rice. 2. Construction of the Siberian Railway in the second half of the 19th century.

Cultural development of Russia in the second half of the 19th century

The transformations that began in the era of Alexander II could not but affect various spheres of Russian culture in the second XIX century.

• Literature ... New views on the life of the Russian population have become widespread in literature. The society of writers, playwrights and poets split into two streams - the so-called Slavophiles and Westernizers. AS Khomyakov and KS Aksakov ranked themselves as Slavophiles. The Slavophiles believed that Russia had its own special path and that there was and will not be any Western influence on Russian culture. The Westerners, to whom Chaadaev P. Ya., I. S. Turgenev, the historian Soloviev S. M., claimed that Russia, on the contrary, should follow the western path of development. Despite the differences in views, both Westerners and Slavophiles were equally worried about the further fate of the Russian people and state structure country. At the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century, Russian literature flourished. F. M. Dostoevsky, I. A. Goncharov, A. P. Chekhov and L. N. Tolstoy write their best works.
• Architecture ... In architecture in the second half of the 19th century, eclectism, a mixture of various styles and trends, began to prevail. This affected the construction of new stations, shopping centers, apartment buildings, etc. Also, the design of various forms in the architecture of a more classical genre has been developed. famous architect this direction was A.I. Shtakenshneider, with the help of which the Mariinsky Palace in St. Petersburg was designed. From 1818 to 1858 St. Isaac's Cathedral was erected in St. Petersburg. This project was developed by Auguste Montferand.

Rice. 3. St. Isaac's Cathedral. St. Petersburg.

• Painting ... The artists, inspired by new trends, did not want to work under the dense tutelage of the Academy, which was stuck in classicism and was torn away from the real vision of art. Thus, the artist V.G. Perov focused his attention on various aspects of the life of society, sharply criticizing the survivals of the serf system. The 60s saw the heyday of the works of the portrait painter Kramskoy, V.A.Tropinin left us a lifetime portrait of A.S. Pushkin. The works of P.A.Fedotov did not fit into the narrow framework of academicism. His works "The Courtship of a Major" or "Breakfast of an Aristocrat" ridiculed the dull self-righteousness of officials and the remnants of serfdom.

In 1852, the Hermitage was opened in St. Petersburg, where the best works of painters from all over the world were collected.

What have we learned?

From the briefly described article, you can learn about the transformations of Alexander II, about the emergence of the first revolutionary circles, about the counter-reforms of Alexander III, as well as about the flourishing of Russian culture in the second half of the 19th century.

Test by topic

Assessment of the report

Average rating: 4.5. Total ratings received: 397.

2. The Russian Empire at the beginning of the 20th century: political, economic situation; political parties.

3. The first Russian revolution 1905-1907.

Russia in the second half of the 19th century.

At the turn of the first and second half of the XIX century. was the Crimean (Eastern) War of 1853-1856. Nicholas the First died in 1855. He was succeeded by Alexander II, Tsar-Liberator(1855-1881). Alexander II was the eldest son of the tsar, he was prepared for the occupation of the throne. Under the leadership of VA Zhukovsky, he was brought up in the spirit of lofty spiritual and moral interests, received an excellent education, knew five languages, military affairs, at the age of 26 he became a “full general”. After completing his studies, he traveled to Russia and many European countries. He had a broad outlook, a sharp mind, exquisite manners, was a charming and kind person. He was distinguished by liberal views. Nicholas the First introduced him to the State Council and the Committee of Ministers, entrusted the leadership of the Secret Committees for Peasant Affairs. By the time of his accession to the throne, he was well prepared for government activities. Alexander II initiated reforms that put Russia on the path of capitalism. The main reason for the reforms was the defeat in the Crimean War. The war showed the degree of backwardness of the Russian recruiting army and sailing fleet, weapons from the massive armies of European countries, a new type of ships and weapons. To overcome the new, humiliating position of Russia in the world arena, it was necessary to overcome the backwardness in the military and economic spheres, which was impossible without reforms. Other reasons were the growing actions of the peasants, the tsar's sympathy for the peasants under the impression of Turgenev's "Notes of a Hunter", and the education system developed for Tsarevich Zhukovsky.

The first and most significant was agrarian reform of 1861... Her preparation took about 6 years. In 1856, speaking before the Moscow nobility, the tsar said: "It is better to abolish serfdom from above, than to wait for the time when it will automatically begin to abolish from below." The development of the plan for the liberation of the serfs from 1857 was carried out by a secret committee, the work was headed by the tsar himself. In response to the appeal of the Lithuanian nobles, Alexander II announced a rescript addressed to the Vilna Governor-General V.I. Nazimov, who allowed the creation of committees in 3 provinces to develop projects for the liberation of the peasants. In 1858, the Main Committee on the Peasant Question was created under the leadership of the Minister of Internal Affairs S.S. Lansky and the provincial committees. In 1859, editorial commissions were created to consider projects submitted by provincial committees. The publication and discussion of any proposed projects for the liberation of the peasants was allowed. The reform was based on the plan of the historian of the public school K.D. Kavelin. In January 1861, the reform project was submitted by the Main Committee to the State Council and approved by the tsar. February 19, 1861 Alexander II signed Manifesto about the emancipation of the peasants "Regulations on peasants emerging from serfdom", which included documents on the procedure for implementing the reform on the ground. Former private peasants entered the estate of free rural inhabitants and received civil and economic rights. The main directions of the reform: liberation of serfs from personal dependence; allotment of land to them for ransom; retaining at least 1/3 of the land owned by the landowners before the reform; allotment land was transferred to the ownership of the peasant community; the provision of loans by the state to peasants for the redemption operation. Only peasants were allotted land, other categories of serfs were freed without allotments. Allotment size was determined in the provinces of different regions from 3 to 12 dessiatines; if a peasant agreed to an allotment equal to ¼ of the prescribed rate, it was given to him free of charge. The landowner had the right to cut the size below the minimum norm if, if the norms were observed, he had less than 1/3 of the land that he owned before the reform. The redemption deed was recorded in charter, concluded between the landlord and the peasant, it recorded the location of the plots included in the allotment, their size, price, types of payments, etc. temporarily liable relationship. The landowner was obliged to provide the peasant with land for use, and the peasants were obliged to perform any work, pay quitrent, that is, the connection between them did not stop. To assist the parties in drawing up statutes and resolving any controversial issues, an institute was created world mediators... The peasant immediately had to pay the landlord 20-25% of the value of the allotment, the remaining 75-80% the state provided to the peasants in the form of a loan, which was given for 49 years, was repaid by annual payments of the peasants with an accrual of 6% per annum. The peasants were to unite in rural societies... They introduced self management: matters were decided at village meetings, the decisions of village elders, elected for three years, were carried out. Rural communities of one locality constituted a rural parish, its affairs were in charge of a meeting of village elders and special elected representatives from rural communities. The redemption payments were paid annually by the rural community collectively. A peasant who did not want to redeem the land and remain in his former place of residence, could not abandon his allotment and leave without the consent of society. Such consent was given with difficulty, since society was interested in buying out as much land as possible. The reform was carried out very slowly. At the conclusion of redemption acts in the chernozem and non-chernozem provinces, cuts of land from the peasants prevailed, in the steppe provinces - the cuttings. After the death of Alexander II, his successor in December 1881 g... issues the Law on the termination of temporarily liable relations between peasants and landowners and on the compulsory redemption of land allotments. It entered into force on January 1, 1884, by that time 11-15% of peasants had retained temporarily liable relations. The law slightly reduced the amount of redemption payments (in Great Russia - by 1 ruble per capita, in Ukraine - by 16%). The law came into force in 1884. 1882 was established Peasant Land Bank, which provided loans to peasants secured by property with 6.5% per annum. When payments were delayed, the allotments were sold at auction, this led to the ruin of many peasants. V 1885 was formed Noble land bank to support landowners in conditions of capitalist development, loans were issued at 4.5% per annum. The agrarian reform of 1861 extended to the landlord peasants in 47 provinces of Russia. With regard to other categories of the dependent peasantry, specific and state peasants a similar reform was carried out in 1863 and 1866 biennium For outlying areas- even later, on the basis of special "Provisions" and on more favorable terms. In the most favorable conditions in comparison with the central provinces were Right-bank Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus and especially Poland... In Poland (1864), the peasants received allotments without redemption, they even slaughtered part of the landlord's land, taking it away from the gentry, who took it in the uprising of 1863-1864. The peasants were in the worst situation Georgia, from which more than 40% of the land was cut off. In the North Caucasus, the peasants lost almost all their land and paid a significant sum for personal liberation. In Russia, the agrarian reform was carried out mainly according to the Prussian version, which ensured the slow development of capitalism in agriculture. Despite its limitations, this reform had exceptional value... Personal dependence has disappeared, the almost slave position of millions of the country's population has disappeared. A labor market has emerged. Capitalism began to develop actively.

Zemskaya reform was carried out according to the "Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions" of January 1, 1864. In a number of provinces of Russia, uyezd and provincial zemstvos - public bodies of local self-government... The main reason for their creation was the need to equip the life of the post-reform village in conditions when the small administrative staff at the local level was unable to cope with the problems on their own. The government turned over the "less significant" cases to public bodies of local self-government. Initially, zemstvos were created in 7 provinces, then their number constantly increased, until the liquidation of these bodies by Soviet power. Competence of zemstvos: insurance of farms, stockpiling of food and seeds, ensuring fire safety, creating a health and primary care system, providing veterinary assistance, combating epidemics, agronomic assistance, taking care of the state of communications, building roads, bridges, taking care of the work of the post, telegraph, economic provision of prisons and charitable institutions, assistance in the development of local industry and trade. For their activities, zemstvos were allowed to levy taxes and duties on the population of counties, create zemstvo capital, and acquire property. Zemstvos had executive and administrative bodies... Administrative bodies - county and provincial zemstvo meetings, as a rule, they were headed by the provincial and district leaders of the nobility. Executive bodies - county (chairman and 2 members of the board) and provincial (chairman and 6-12 members of the board) zemstvo councils, their chairmen were elected. The chairman of the provincial zemstvo council was approved by the minister of internal affairs, and the uyezd one - by the governor. The bourgeois content of the Zemstvo reform was that representatives of zemstvos were elected by the population for a period of 3 years... Voters were divided into 3 curiae(groups) by property qualification. The 1st curia consisted of large landowners with at least 200 dessiatines and owners of large commercial and industrial enterprises and real estate worth at least 15 thousand rubles. Among the urban voters, the large and partly middle bourgeoisie was represented. The third curia was represented by peasant societies; only landowners who had at least 10 acres of land or the corresponding income from other property participated in their gatherings for elections to zemstvos. For the 1st and 2nd curia, the elections were direct, for the 3rd - step-by-step: at village meetings, electors were elected, who at volost meetings elected electors who elected vowels. Elections to the provincial zemstvo assembly took place at the uyezd zemstvo assembly. The number of vowels to be elected was distributed in such a way that the predominance of representatives from the landowners was ensured. The weakness of the position of the zemstvos manifested itself in the absence of an all-Russian central body coordinating their activities, they had a limited budget, did not have the right to publish reports on their meetings without permission, they were prohibited from engaging in political activities. In addition, after the Zemstvo counter-reform of 1890, they were placed under the petty control of the local administration and were forced to report annually to the provincial authorities on their expenses and substantiate the requested budget for the next year. Despite all the prohibitions, zemstvos began to organize congresses of their representatives, where they exchanged, published statements, and constantly communicating with peasants, taking care of the needs of the poor, representatives of zemstvos imbued with sympathy for them and at the beginning of the 20th century a new socio-political trend appeared - zemstvo liberalism. Meaning the activities of these bodies have exceeded the expected results. They not only conscientiously performed the functions assigned to them, but also went beyond them, for example, they organized schools to train teachers for zemstvo schools, sent promising peasant children to study at universities, created a constantly growing staff of zemstvo agronomists, experimental fields, and exhibitions of technology. and etc.

Urban reform on " City status June 16, 1870. " envisaged the creation in cities all-estates of self-government bodies whose representatives were elected from the population paying taxes and performing duties. To participate in the elections, the urban population was divided into 3 curiae according to property: large, medium and small owners. Each curia chose 1/3 of the vowels in the city thought- regulatory body. Their term of office is 4 years... Composition city ​​government(a permanent executive body) elected vowel dumas from their midst. They chose mayor, who headed the council, his candidacy was approved by the governor or the minister of internal affairs. The competence of city self-government bodies, principles of activity, reporting, etc. were similar to those of the zemstvo bodies. Their activities were controlled by the "provincial town affairs presence" under the chairmanship of the governor.

Judicial reform 1864 was the most consistent of the nineteenth-century liberal-bourgeois reforms. The decree on her and the "New judicial statutes" were approved by the tsar on November 20, 1864. The need to rebuild the judicial system was caused, first of all, by the abolition of serfdom and the liquidation of the feudal court. Principles new judicial system: meaninglessness, openness, adversarial nature of the trial, the introduction of the institution of jurors, independence and irremovability of judges. The whole country was divided into judicial districts and world districts, their boundaries did not coincide with the administrative ones in order to avoid pressure on judges from the administration. Considered minor civil and criminal cases magistrate's Court, cassation cases were considered by the congress of justices of the peace. Justices of the peace were elected by county zemstvo assemblies and city councils according to lists approved by the governor, and were finally confirmed by the Senate. The judge could not be dismissed, re-elected, except for the cases when he committed a crime; however, it was possible to transfer him to another district. The main structural unit of the new judicial system was district Court with criminal and civil offices. Cases were heard by judges: the president and members of the court appointed by the government. For the most important cases in composition of the court consisted of the president, members of the court and jurors drawn by lot from the trustworthy citizens of the district. The hearing of the case took place in the presence of the accused (defendant) and the victim (plaintiff), his defense lawyer, the prosecutor-prosecutor. The prosecutor and the lawyer conduct a judicial investigation, on the basis of which the jury pass a verdict (after secret deliberation) on the guilt or innocence of the defendant, on the basis of this the court issues a verdict, appointing a measure of punishment or releasing the defendant. The civil suits were tried without a jury. Cassation cases were considered by the judicial chamber (9-12 district judges), the highest court was the Senate and its local departments. The inferiority of the court was originally violated the existence of special court systems for a number of categories of the population. For the peasants there was a special volost court; special court - consistory- for the clergy; dealt with high-ranking officials directly Senate; there were several ships for the military ( tribunal, court-martial, regimental court); for political processes were introduced military courts, special presences at the Senate and administrative punitive measures (without trial).

Before the judicial reform, in 1863 year., were corporal punishment abolished for the underprivileged estates, with the exception of the peasants (rods were preserved according to the verdicts of volost courts), exiles, convicts and penal soldiers (rods).

Military reforms were actively carried out in 1862-1884, they were started by the Minister of War D.A. Milyutin. The structure of the War Ministry was simplified, the departments were enlarged. The country was divided into military districts, headed by district commanders, responsible for all matters (supply, recruitment, training, etc.), the military units of the district were subordinate to him. Since 1863, some of the soldiers are dismissed on indefinite leave, without waiting for the end of 25 years of service, they made up the reserve. V 1874 g... was accepted new military regulations, was introduced general conscription, recruitment was canceled... Men of all classes who reached the age of 20-21 were required to complete an active 6-year service in the ground forces and a 7-year service in the navy, then retired to the reserve for 9 years and 3 years, respectively. With a large population of Russia, they were called up for service by lot, the rest were the militia and military training took place. They were exempted from compulsory service the only breadwinners in the family, people with education, doctors, teachers of schools and gymnasiums, artists of the imperial theaters, railway workers, confessors, as well as "foreigners" as unreliable. The appeal of persons who started commercial activities was postponed for 5 years. For the training of officers a network of new educational institutions was introduced. Cadet corps, except for Pages, Finland and Orenburg were closed, instead of them were created military schools(6 schools with 3-year training), their graduates received the title of second lieutenant. The contingent for schools was trained military gymnasiums(18 gymnasiums with a 7-year period of study) and gymnasium(8 with 4 years of training). In 1882 they were all again converted to cadet corps, but on the basis of a combination of programs of gymnasiums and military schools. To obtain higher military education were created military academies and naval school... The academy accepted persons who graduated military school and who have served in the army for at least 5 years. In 1884 were created cadet schools with a 2-year training, there were admitted soldiers who showed aptitude for service and completed a period of active service, graduates were not assigned officer rank, it was received at the place of service with a vacancy. In the infantry, officers-nobles made up 46-83%, in the navy - 73%. The rearmament of the army was carried out. As a result of the reforms, the army became more professionally trained, had a large supply, and the leadership system became more effective.

Were held educational reforms and censorship... According to the "Regulations" of 1864, the initial public schools public organizations and private individuals could open (with the permission of government agencies), the management of the teaching (programs, etc.) was carried out by officials, school councils and the boards of directors and school inspectors; the educational process was strictly regulated (instructions, etc.). Children of all classes, ranks and religions had the right to study. But in the gymnasiums there was a high tuition fee. Classical gymnasiums with a 7-year period of study (from 1871 - with an 8-year period), they prepared students for admission to universities, mainly for training officials. Real gymnasiums(later - real schools) with a 6-year course were called upon to train personnel for industry and trade, their graduates were given access to higher technical educational institutions, they were not admitted to universities. The division of secondary schools into two types was focused on teaching children of nobles and officials in classical schools, and children of the bourgeoisie in real schools. Introduction female gymnasiums, the foundation was laid for female secondary education... Women were not admitted to universities. In the sphere higher education there have been significant changes. In the 1860s-1870s. Universities were opened in Odessa, Warsaw, Helsingfors (Finland), the Petrovskaya Agricultural Academy in Moscow, the Polytechnic Institute in Riga, the Institute of Agriculture and Forestry in Alexandria (Ukraine), higher courses for women in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kazan and Kiev. V 1863 year... a new Charter of Universities restoring their autonomy. The direct management of the university was entrusted to a council of professors, which elected the rector, deans and a new teaching staff. But the activities of universities were supervised by the Minister of Education and the trustees of the educational district. Student organizations were not permitted. V 1865 g... were introduced "Temporary Printing Regulations", abolishing preliminary censorship for periodicals and small books published in the capital cities.

Several attempts were made on the Tsar-Liberator by members of revolutionary organizations. After the explosion of a bomb in the Winter Palace, Alexander II creates a Supreme Administrative Commission for the leadership of the country, headed by Count M.T. Loris-Melikov, appointed Minister of the Interior. It got the name "Dictatorship of Loris-Melikov", "dictatorship of the heart"... Loris-Melikov actively fought terrorism, abolished the Third Section, which had shown its insolvency, and created in its place the Police Department, which was part of the structure of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Ministers-conservatives were removed from the government, supporters of reforms took their place, at the same time the conservative, apologist of autocracy K.P. Pobedonostsev became the chief prosecutor of the Synod. Censorship was weakened, the tsar instructed Loris-Melikov to develop a reform program for the coming years. Projects have been prepared (Constitution of Loris-Melikov) but were not enforced. March 1, 1881 Alexander II was killed People's Will.

He stood on the throne Alexander III, Tsar-Peacemaker(1845-1894, emperor from 1881). He was not prepared for the reign, he took the throne due to the death of his older brother. He received an education corresponding to the position of the Grand Duke, was a diligent student and pupil, was not stupid, but did not have a sharp mind, more than other subjects he loved military affairs. Rough, rustic and unpretentious in everyday life, he ruled as if "fulfilling the duties of a king" with his inherent conscientiousness. During his reign, Russia did not participate in wars. The king believed that the country should deal with internal problems. By convictions, he was a conservative, a supporter of the "inviolability of autocracy", as stated in the Manifesto on April 29, 1881, developed by Pobedonostsev. He rejected a petition for pardoning the First March members. The reign of Alexander III marks transition to reaction and counter-reforms aimed at a partial rollback of the liberal reforms of its predecessor. After the Tsar's Manifesto, all the ministers who supported the reforms resigned, and Pobedonostsev selected candidates for their places.

Earlier than others began judicial counter-reform... In August 1881 was published " Regulations on measures to maintain public order and public peace": The governors were given the right to declare the provinces" in a state of enhanced and emergency protection ", to hand over to the military court" for crimes of state or attacks on the ranks of the troops, police and all officials in general ", to demand a closed trial. This provision, introduced for 3 years, was in effect until 1917. 1887 was published limitation of public sittings law... The court was given the right to close the doors to the public, which created opportunities for arbitrariness. For the same purpose, a number of changes have been made to the provisions of the judicial reform. Since July 1889 by the law on zemstvo chiefs the magistrate's court was abolished, its functions were transferred to new judicial and administrative officials - district zemstvo chiefs. They had the right to suspend decisions of the volost court, appoint volost judges, impose fines and subject to administrative arrests. The supervision over the execution of their decisions was carried out by the provincial presences headed by the governor. Influenced by workers' struggles the registration of the all-Russian labor legislation began... In 1885, a law was issued prohibiting night work for women and adolescents. In 1886 - the law on the procedure for hiring and dismissal, on the regulation of fines and payment of wages, to control its observance, the institute of factory inspectors was introduced. In 1887 - a law limiting the duration of the working day in hazardous work and physically difficult.

Counter-reforms were carried out in the region education and press... In 1882, the Petersburg higher women's medical courses were closed, admission to other higher women's courses was discontinued. Introduced " Temporary Printing Regulations", According to which newspapers that received" warnings "had to undergo preliminary censorship on the eve of their release; the meeting of the ministers of education, internal affairs, justice and the Holy Synod was given the right to close a periodical, to prohibit a work that was not loyal to the authorities. The activities of the national reading room and libraries... Since 1888, a special department of the committee under the Ministry of Education revised the catalog of books for reading rooms; their opening required permission from the Ministry of Internal Affairs, and managers were appointed with the consent of the governor. In the field of education, a line was carried out to curtail autonomy educational institutions, narrowing the access of the lower classes to education, increasing the influence of the church. The network of parish schools was transferred to the jurisdiction of the Synod, short-term literacy schools - to the jurisdiction of diocesan schools; in the schools of the Ministry of Public Education, the teaching of the "law of God" was expanded. V 1887 g... was published circular(nicknamed " cook's children law”), Who proposed to admit in the gymnasium and progymnasium only the children of well-meaning citizens who could create“ the convenience they needed for educational knowledge ”. This reduced the access to them for the children of "coachmen, lackeys ... and the like," except for the gifted ones. Tuition fees were increased for the same purpose. V 1884 g... a new university charter... Each university was headed by a trustee and a rector appointed by the minister of public education with broad administrative powers; the rights of academic colleges, councils and faculty meetings were narrowed. The professors were appointed by the minister, the deans - the trustee of the educational district, who approved plans and programs, oversaw the entire life of the university, could approve the journals of council meetings, assign benefits, etc. The inspector was the assistant to the rector in organizing supervision of the students. The position of the students was regulated by the rules. A certificate of conduct from the police was required for the applicant. Student meetings and performances were prohibited, a uniform was introduced. Tuition fees increased. The charter provoked protests from students and professors. The answer is dismissal and expulsion. All measures were directed against access to higher education for people from the Raznochinsk community.

Government limited zemstvo and city self-government... Since 1889, conciliators, their county congresses, and county peasant presences were replaced by district zemstvo chiefs appointed from the nobility and performing both judicial and administrative functions. They had the right to suspend the decisions of the village gathering. V 1890 the adoption of a new " Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions ", the zemstvo counter-reform was carried out... The dependence of the zemstvos on the administration increased, not a single resolution of the zemstvo assembly could enter into force without its approval by the governor or the minister of internal affairs. The system of vowel elections was changed. The electives from the volost were only candidates for vowels, from their list the governor selected and appointed vowels to the zemstvo, taking into account the recommendations of the zemstvo chief. The number of vowels from the peasants was reduced, from the nobles increased, while the total number of vowels was reduced. " City status "1892 provided electoral rights mainly to owners of real estate, raised the property qualification, which significantly reduced the number of voters.

V economic sphere the government pursued a course of support and development of domestic industry, trade, stabilization of the financial system and the development of the capitalist sector in the countryside in the person of noble land tenure. V 1882 year, the poll tax was abolished from landless peasants and reduced by 10% from former serfs. This law came into force in 1884. poll tax was abolished in 1885 city, it was replaced by other taxes. Creation of the Peasant Land (1882) and the Noble Land (1885) banks provided loans to land owners. Agricultural Employment Act(1886) obliged peasants to sign an agreement on work for landlords and established penalties for unauthorized departure from an employer. He helped stabilize the market for hired labor in the countryside. With the growth of "land hunger" in order to ease tensions in the countryside in 1886 and 1893 biennium published laws obstructing land divisions allotment land (the consent of an older family member and a peasant gathering is required) and redistribution of communal land (no more than 1 time in 12 years); early redemption of allotments is allowed with the consent of at least two-thirds of the village gathering, it is prohibited to sell allotments to persons who do not belong to this rural society. V 1899 d. laws are issued, canceling mutual liability communal peasants when collecting payments. The Minister of Finance took an active part in their development. S.Yu. Witte, it was he at the end of the XIX century. supervised economic policy, and from the beginning of the twentieth century. - all spheres of government activity. S.Yu. Witte was a nobleman by birth, graduated from the Novorossiysk University. Made a brilliant career in the civil service. He rose from an employee of the office of the Odessa governor, a minor employee of a promising railway industry, to the Minister of Railways (from 1882), the Minister of Finance (from 1882), the Chairman of the Cabinet of Ministers (from 1903) and the Chairman of the Council of Ministers (1905- 1906). He was distinguished by a sharp mind, independence of judgment, lack of servility and scrupulousness, not refined manners. Monarchist by conviction, ideal statesman he considered Alexander III, who in turn appreciated him highly. He showed himself as a skillful diplomat at the conclusion of the Portsmouth Peace Treaty, as a pillar of autocracy in the development of the tsarist Manifesto of October 17, 1905. Even his enemies could not but admit that everything he did contributed to the strengthening of Great Russia. S.Yu. Witte's economic platform: to reduce the distance between Russia and the developed countries of Europe by attracting foreign capital, accumulating domestic resources, customs protection of domestically produced goods; take a strong position in the markets of the East; the creation of a solid middle stratum of good taxpayers in the person of peasant landlords. He considered the expansion of the railway network "a cure for poverty." S.Yu. Witte understood that Russia would not be able to catch up with the advanced industrial countries in a short time, therefore, it was necessary to benefit from the existing potential. He takes active and quickly pays for himself. construction of state railway lines in the European part of Russia, the Trans-Siberian Railway (1891-1905) for the transportation of goods from the Pacific Ocean and the implementation of intermediary trade, the CER (1897-1903). V 1887-1894 biennium in Russia, customs duties were raised on the import of iron, cast iron, coal; for manufactured goods, they reached 30%. This got the name " customs war". Germany increased duties on grain, which contradicted the interests of Russian exporters, in whose interests they were changed internal railway tariffs. On the western lines, they decreased, which facilitated the export; in the southern and eastern regions they were increased in order to prevent the import of cheap grain from the Volga region and the North Caucasus into the center. V 1894 Mr. Witte concluded a mutually beneficial customs agreement with Germany... V 1894-1895 he achieved stabilization of the ruble and in 1897 introduced gold money circulation, which increased the domestic and foreign exchange rate of the ruble, ensured the inflow of foreign capital, caused a rise in the price of export grain and the dissatisfaction of exporters. Witte was a supporter of unlimited attracting foreign capital to industry, the spread of foreign concessions since the state did not have enough funds of its own, and the landlords were reluctant to invest them in entrepreneurship. Active factory construction in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. received the name " industrialization Witte". To replenish the treasury, he introduced state wine monopoly giving up to ¼ of budget revenues. Witte began work on agrarian question, achieved the elimination of mutual responsibility in the community, developed a reform to introduce private ownership of peasants to land, but did not manage to implement it, obviously, considering it not a priority. V 1897 g... was first held in Russia general population census, its number was 125.6 million. Largely as a result of the activities of S.Yu. Witte 1890s became a period of economic recovery in Russia: a record number of railway lines were built, the ruble was stabilized, the industry was growing, Russia came to the first place in the world in oil production, in first place in Europe in the export of bread, which became its main item.

Literature of the second half of the 19th century played an important role in the social life of the country. Most modern critics and readers are convinced of this. At that time, reading was not entertainment, but ways of knowing the surrounding reality. For the writer, creativity itself became an important act of civil service to society, since he had a sincere faith in the power creative word, in the likelihood that the book will be able to influence the mind and soul of a person so that it changes for the better.

Confrontation in literature

As modern researchers note, it was because of this belief in the literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century that the civil pathos of the struggle for some idea was born, which could play an important role in transforming the country, send the whole country along one path or another. The 19th century was the century of the maximum development of Russian critical thought. Therefore, the performances in the press of critics of that time entered the annals of Russian culture.

The well-known confrontation that emerged in the history of literature in the middle of the 19th century, emerged between the Westernizers and the Slavophiles. These social movements emerged in Russia in the 1840s. Westerners argued that the true development of Russia began with the reforms of Peter I, and in the future it was necessary to follow this historical path. At the same time, they treated all pre-Petrine Russia with disdain, noting the lack of a culture and history worthy of respect. The Slavophiles advocated the independent development of Russia independently of the West.

It was at that time that a very radical movement became popular among Westerners, which was based on the teachings of utopians with a socialist bias, in particular, Fourier and Saint-Simon. The most radical wing of this movement saw revolution as the only way to change something in the state.

The Slavophils, in turn, insisted that the history of Russia is no less rich than that of the West. In their opinion, Western civilization suffered from individualism and unbelief, disillusioned with spiritual values.

The confrontation between Westernizers and Slavophiles was also observed in Russian literature in the second half of the 19th century, and especially in criticism of Gogol. Westerners considered this writer the founder of the socially critical trend in Russian literature, while the Slavophiles insisted on the epic completeness of the poem "Dead Souls" and its prophetic pathos. Remember that critical articles played an important role in Russian literature in the second half of the 19th century.

"Naturalists"

In the 1840s, a whole galaxy of writers appeared, rallied around the literary critic Belinsky. This group of writers began to be called representatives of the "natural school".

In the literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century, they were very popular. Their main character is a representative of the underprivileged class. These are artisans, janitors, beggars, peasants. The writers tried to give them the opportunity to express themselves, to show their customs and life, reflecting through them all of Russia from a special angle.

The genre is very popular among them. It describes different strata of society with scientific rigor. Bright representatives"natural school" - Nekrasov, Grigorovich, Turgenev, Reshetnikov, Uspensky.

Revolutionary Democrats

By the 1860s, the confrontation between the Westernizers and the Slavophiles was coming to naught. But disputes between representatives of the intelligentsia continue. Cities and industry are rapidly developing around, history is changing. At this point in the literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century came people from various social strata. If earlier writing was the lot of the nobility, now merchants, priests, burghers, officials and even peasants take up the pen.

In literature and criticism, the ideas laid down by Belinsky are being developed, the authors pose acute social questions to readers.

Philosophical foundations are laid in his master's thesis by Chernyshevsky.

"Aesthetic criticism"

In the second half of the 19th century, the direction of "aesthetic criticism" was especially developed in literature. Botkin, Druzhinin, Annenkov do not accept didacticism, proclaiming the intrinsic value of creativity, as well as its detachment from social problems.

"Pure art" should solve exclusively aesthetic problems, such conclusions were reached by representatives of "organic criticism". In its principles, developed by Strakhov and Grigoriev, genuine art became the fruit not only of the mind, but also of the artist's soul.

Soil scientists

During this period, soil workers became very popular. These included Dostoevsky, Grigoriev, Danilevsky, Strakhov. They developed ideas as a Slavophile, warning at the same time to get too carried away with social ideas, to break away from tradition, reality, history and people.

They tried to penetrate the life of ordinary people, deriving general principles for the maximum organic development of the state. In the magazines "Epoch" and "Vremya" they criticized the rationalism of opponents, who, in their opinion, were too revolutionary.

Nihilism

One of the features of literature in the second half of the 19th century was nihilism. In it, the soil people saw one of the main threats to the present reality. Nihilism was very popular among various strata of Russian society. It was expressed in the denial of accepted norms of behavior, cultural values ​​and recognized leaders. At the same time, moral principles were replaced by the concepts of personal pleasure and benefit.

The most striking work of this trend is Turgenev's novel "Fathers and Sons", written in 1861. Its protagonist Bazarov denies love, art and compassion. Pisarev, who was one of the main ideologues of nihilism, admired him.

Novel genre

Important role in Russian literature this period is occupied by the novel. It was in the second half of the 19th century that Leo Tolstoy's epic War and Peace, Chernyshevsky's political novel What Is to Be Done ?, Dostoevsky's psychological novel Crime and Punishment, and the social novel Lord Golovlevs by Saltykov-Shchedrin were published.

The most significant was the work of Dostoevsky, reflecting the era.

Poetry

In the 1850s, poetry was flourishing after a short oblivion, which came after the golden age of Pushkin and Lermontov. Polonsky, Fet, Maikov come to the fore.

In poetry, poets pay increased attention to folk art, history, and everyday life. Comprehension becomes important Russian history into the works of Alexei Konstantinovich Tolstoy, Maikov, May. It is the epics, folk legends and old songs that determine the style of the authors.

In the 50-60s, the work of civil poets became popular. Poems by Minaev, Mikhailov, Kurochkin are associated with revolutionary democratic ideas. Nikolai Nekrasov became the main authority for the poets of this trend.

By the end of the 19th century, peasant poets were becoming popular. Among them are Trefolev, Surikov, Drozhzhin. In her work, she continues the traditions of Nekrasov and Koltsov.

Dramaturgy

The second half of the 19th century was the time of the development of national and original drama. The authors of the plays actively use folklore, pay attention to the peasant and merchant life, national history, the language spoken by the people. You can often find works on social and moral issues, in which romanticism is combined with realism. Such playwrights include Alexei Nikolaevich Tolstoy, Ostrovsky, Sukhovo-Kobylin.

The variety of styles and art forms in drama led to the emergence at the very end of the century of the bright dramatic works of Chekhov and Leo Nikolaevich Tolstoy.

Influence of foreign literature

Foreign literature of the second half of the 19th century has a noticeable influence on Russian writers and poets.

At this time, realistic novels reign in foreign literature. First of all, these are works by Balzac ("Shagreen Skin", "Parma Cloister", "Eugene Grande"), Charlotte Bronte ("Jane Eyre"), Thackeray ("Newcomes", "Vanity Fair", "The Story of Henry Esmond"), Flaubert ("Madame Bovary", "Education of the Senses", "Salammbo", "Simple Soul").

In England at that time, Charles Dickens is considered the main writer, his works "Oliver Twist", "Notes of the Pickwick Club", The Life and Adventures of Niklas Nickleby, "Christmas Carol", "Dombey and Son" are read in Russia as well.

In European poetry, the collection of poems by Charles Baudelaire "Flowers of Evil" becomes a real revelation. These are the works of the famous European symbolist, which caused a whole storm of discontent and indignation in Europe due to the large number of obscene lines, the poet was even fined for violating the norms of morality and ethics, making the collection of poems one of the most popular in the decade.