Memory including the processes of storing storage and playback. Memory processes: memorization, preservation, recognition, reproduction and forgetting. The main conditions for strong memorization are

Mnemonic processes (memory: memorization, preservation, forgetting, recognition, reproduction)

MINISTRY OF SCIENCE AND EDUCATION OF RF FSBEI HPE

Ufa State University Economy and Service

Department of Pedagogy and Psychology

inclusive learning

ESSAY

Discipline: Psychology

on the topic: "Mnemonic processes (memory: memorization, preservation, forgetting, recognition, reproduction)"

Completed: student gr. BGOZK-1

Ibragimov E.R.

Code: 12.01.228

Checked:

Introduction

1.The history of the development of the psychology of memory and experimental research

2.The organic foundations of memory

.Memory associations

.Remembering and forgetting

.Keeping in memory and forgetting

.The phenomena of preservation and forgetting

.Eidetism

.Recognition and reproduction

Conclusion

List of used literature

INTRODUCTION

Perception, in which a person cognizes the surrounding reality, usually does not disappear without a trace. They are consolidated, preserved and reproduced in the future in the form of recognizing the objects we have seen, recollecting what we have experienced, recollecting the past, etc.

In the course of his life and work, solving the practical problems facing us and more or less deeply experiencing what is happening, a person, without setting himself such a goal or task, remembers a lot, a lot is involuntarily imprinted on him. However, the needs of action do not allow one to restrict oneself to such involuntary memorization. As the complexity of human activity and the conditions in which it takes place, it is necessary, not to rely on random luck, not voluntary memorization, set a special goal or memorization task for yourself.

Reflection and reproduction of the past in memory is not passive; it includes the relationship of the individual to the reproduced. This attitude can be more or less conscious. It becomes completely conscious when the reproduced image is realized in its relation to the past reality, that is, when the subject refers to the reproduced image as a reflection of the past.

If we talk about memory not only as a collective term for a certain set of processes, but as a single function, then we can talk only about some very general and elementary ability to capture and - under appropriate conditions - restore sensitivity data, i.e. about what can be called a mnemonic function. Memorization, recollection, reproduction, recognition, which are included in memory, are built on this basis, but in no way can they be reduced to it. These are specific processes in which thinking is very significantly involved in a more or less complex and sometimes contradictory unity with speech and all aspects of the human psyche (attention, interests, emotions, etc.).

1. HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT OF MEMORY PSYCHOLOGY AND EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

Along with other cognitive processes, perceptual and intellectual, mnemonic processes are distinguished (from the Greek "mnema" - memory). Mnemic processes act as components of a person's cognitive activity and are inextricably linked with his intellectual activity and perceptual processes. Memory images are called views.

What is memory? Memory is the process of preserving past experience, making it possible to reuse it in activity and return to the sphere of consciousness. Memory connects the subject's past with his present and future and is the most important cognitive function underlying development and learning. Renewing images of individual objects and processes perceived in the past, previously assimilated movements and actions, feelings and desires experienced before, and finally, thoughts that once arose constitute a person's past experience, the content of what is remembered.

The beginning of experimental studies of mnemonic processes refers to late XIX century. Among the first psychologists who addressed this problem was the German scientist G. Ebbinghaus. He carried out studies of memory processes when referring to memorizing meaningless phrases. The results obtained made it possible for him to deduce a number of laws of memorization, which in themselves were of certain interest, but were applicable exclusively to material that did not have a logical organization.

Subsequently, other researchers made the necessary amendments to the patterns that were identified by Ebbinghaus. So, in particular, at the beginning of the 20th century, representatives of Gestalt psychology drew attention to the organization of the material to be memorized, and received data that are largely at odds with those contained in the studies of Ebbinghaus.

In psychoanalytic teachings, the process of forgetting, as one of the most important components of a person's mnemonic activity, was explained by the desire to displace from the sphere of consciousness that which traumatizes the personality, causes it unpleasant memories ultimately has a negative impact on the emotional state of the subject. This gave rise to a number of experimental data, which are currently being discussed, although not entirely accepted by modern psychology.

The French psychologist Janet emphasized the role of sociocultural factors in characterizing the higher forms of development of mnemonic activity.

In Russian psychology, the traditional concept of the development of memory has developed, associated with an appeal to the theory of activity. Thus, the concept of memory as an action in the proper sense of the word, with a conscious goal and based on the use of socially developed sign means, was developed. In the course of ontogenetic development, there is a change in the methods of memorization, the role of the processes of isolation in the material of meaningful semantic connections increases. Various types of memory: motor, emotional, figurative, verbal and logical - were sometimes considered as stages of such development.

New material for the understanding of memory processes was provided by studies of a number of mental functions for which certain zones of the cerebral hemispheres are responsible.So, violations of logical processes, in particular logical memorization and preservation of semantic connections, turned out to be associated with the functioning of the left hemisphere, while was clearly due to the work of the right hemisphere of the brain.

2. ORGANIC MEMORY BASES

The famous physiologist E. Goering spoke of "memory as a general function of organic matter." Subsequently, R. Semon developed the doctrine of organic memory, which he denoted by the Greek word "mnema". Psychology, studying memory, must find out what is specific to memory as a psychological phenomenon. It cannot reduce the psychological concept and especially human memory to the general properties of organic matter. But at the same time, it should not separate memory from the general properties of organic matter, and especially from the specific properties of that organic matter, which constitutes the physiological substrate of mental phenomena of memory. The positive significance of Hering's theory is that he was the first to pose the question, albeit in a too general, nonspecific form, about the problem of the physiological foundations of memory. According to Gereng's theory, any stimulus leaves a physiological trace, or imprint, which underlies the subsequent reproduction.

Memory is based on physiological processes that occur in humans in the cerebral hemispheres. Any damage to the cortex in one way or another disrupts the ability to develop new skills. Amnesias (memory disorders) are usually caused by disturbances in the normal functioning of the cortex.

Memory is based on complex dynamic combinations of the consequences of excitation processes (or dynamic stereotypes, using the terminology of I.P. Pavlov). The presence of these consequences creates favorable conditions for the further restoration of excitation processes, favoring the reproduction, under appropriate conditions, of the processes that have already taken place.

3. MEMORY ASSOCIATIONS

Even in the II century BC. the greatest sage of antiquity, Aristotle, noticed a pattern in memory processes that was later called the "law of association". The word "association" itself means "accession", "connection", "union". In this case, we mean the connection between mental phenomena, between representations, i.e. images of the past. Views can communicate based on three principles.

According to the first, perceptions or representations can evoke pictures that were once experienced simultaneously with them or immediately after them (contiguous associations). So, a person, remembering the street on which he lived, and the school building at its end, involuntarily returns in thought to his old teacher, who taught him in primary grades and which has long been gone.

According to the second, perceptions or representations cause images that are similar in some way (associations to similarities). So, in the story of A.P. Chekhov "Boys" one of the heroes of Chechevitsin evokes in little Masha mainly gastronomic associations. When Masha looked at Chechevitsin, she thought and said: "And we cooked lentils yesterday."

Finally, there are associations of contrast. Perceptions or representations can cause an image in something opposite, more or less contrasting with the existing one. In the same story of Chekhov, Chechevitsin's accomplice and friend Volodya, sitting at tea, suddenly pointed his finger at the samovar and said: "And in California they drink gin instead of tea." This is a typical association for the opposite.

Associations play an important role in the process of memorization and reproduction. In general, to remember something is, in essence, to link the memorized with something, to include what is to be memorized, in the context of existing connections, to form associations.

In order for the association to take hold, the coincidence in time of the action of the two mental processes is necessary, they must be experienced simultaneously and at the same time have a certain meaning for a person. It is precisely because of this that in the future the emergence of one of these processes, as it were, pulls along with it another, in the past in some way coinciding with it (we say "by association").

The study of the mechanisms of mnemonic activity is not exhausted by associations of contiguity, similarity and contrast. Important role semantic connections play.

Example: we will offer the subject a series of numbers: 256128643216842. If you ask him to read this number series once and try to reproduce it in memory, then failure is not excluded. Meanwhile, there is no difficulty, since the numbers are doubling from the end to the beginning of the row: 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256. Now, moving from the end to the beginning, without looking at the text, you can reproduce this row.

As soon as the meaning of what is to be remembered is grasped, it is easy to reproduce in memory what was supposed to be remembered. Thus, semantic connections can be attached to other types of associations.

The system of semantic connections generally reflects essential relationships, primarily between causes and effects, as well as between the whole and its parts, the general situation and particular conclusions from it. So, in the study of history, an important event is associated not only with the facts reported in the lesson, but also with the economic and political conditions that caused it, set out much earlier.

The structural components of a person's memory are memorization, forgetting, reproduction and recognition of what constituted his past experience.

4. REMEMBERING AND FORGETTING

Memorization is a generalized name for the processes that ensure the retention of material in memory. There are two types of memorization: voluntary and involuntary.

Memorization is the most important condition for the subsequent restoration of acquired knowledge. The success of memorization is determined primarily by the possibility of including new material in the system of meaningful connections. It is depending on the place of the memorization process in the structure of activity that the above types differ.

In the case of involuntary memorization, a person does not set himself the task of memorizing this or that material. Memory-related processes perform operations here that serve other activities. As a result, memorization is relatively direct in nature and is carried out without special volitional efforts, preliminary selection of material and the conscious use of any mnemonic devices. At the same time, the dependence of memorization on the goal and motives of activity remains in this case as well.

As studies of psychologists P.I. Zinchenko and A.A. Smirnov have shown, involuntary memorization is much more successful when the memorized material is included in the content and is determined by the goals of the performed action. The specificity of the problem being solved also plays an important role. An orientation towards semantic connections leads to a deeper processing of the material and a longer involuntary memorization.

Voluntary memorization is a special action, the specific task of which is to memorize exactly for the longest possible period for the purpose of subsequent reproduction or simply recognition. It determines the choice of methods and means of perception and thereby affects the results of memorization. An important condition for the success of voluntary memorization is the setting for the duration of preservation in memory of what must be learned and retained. For example, it was experimentally found that if the subjects were asked to memorize the material in order to reproduce it the next day, and the other subjects were offered the same material, but to warn them that it would be necessary to answer in terms of the content of what is to be learned, after a month, the difference in the effectiveness of memorization will be very, very noticeable.

So, if we check what was left in memory not on the next day or after a month, but after two weeks, then those subjects who were going to answer the given material on the next day will reproduce it several times worse than those who was going to reproduce it in a month. The setting for the duration of memorization was of decisive importance in the given circumstances. A complex mediated structure is typical for this type of memorization.

Commonly used voluntary memorization techniques include:

drawing up a preliminary plan;

highlighting semantic reference points;

spatial grouping of material;

presentation of material in the form of a visual visual image;

correlating it with already existing knowledge;

All other things being equal, voluntary memorization is more productive than involuntary. It provides a greater awareness of the assimilation of new knowledge and control over this process.

Repetition plays an important role among the mechanisms of memorization. Extending the effective duration of information exposure, it serves as a means of developing higher socialized forms of memory, especially voluntary memorization. However, research shows that repetition is not the only prerequisite for long-term memorization. Vital materials and information that carry a great semantic load for an individual are memorized "by themselves."

MEMORY STORAGE AND FORGETTING

The mental process, the opposite of forgetting, is the retention in memory of everything that was the property of a person's past experience.

Of course, not everything that a person remembers is stored in his memory. A lot of things disappear without a trace, and something, although it is preserved, does not appear in his consciousness in the form in which it was imprinted.

Retention in memory and forgetting, with all their opposite, are processes equally important for the normal functioning of a person, for the organization of his behavior and activities. In some respects, forgetting can even be viewed as a beneficial process. The brain is constantly selecting what is valuable and necessary - what is worth remembering and what should be forgotten. Therefore, forgetting, like memorizing, is an selective process, which has its own laws and characteristics.

The retention of the past in memory turns out to be closely related to feelings. Strong experiences contribute to the strength and accuracy of memorization and retention. What worried I remember a lot better than that that left them indifferent. However, this dependence is not absolute. It has been experimentally revealed that an excessively strong shock, violent emotions are able not so much to ensure the preservation of what was present in the perception, but to prevent it. Indifference to what is happening leads to forgetting what happened.

It is impossible to understand preservation literally, as a simple storage in the memory "pantry" of what has been remembered. The retained connections are rebuilt, generalized, in some way enriched or impoverished. They are modified under the influence of subsequent human activity.

Not everything that is remembered is retained in the future. That which has lost its vital significance, i.e. some relation to the natural and cultural needs of a person, the essential conditions of his activity, sometimes disappears without a trace, sometimes remains in a fragmentary, often distorted form. A huge part of the experience, having fulfilled its role in orientation in environment, is forgotten.

Example: a person does not need to remember all the people whom he had to see during his life, or all the details of the books he read. The memory traces of the same person can persist, on the one hand, for 50-60 years or more, almost unchanged, and on the other hand, they are inhibited after a few days, hours, and sometimes minutes even when you want to keep them. So, the old man, remembering the words and the motive of the song he heard in his distant childhood, sometimes forgets about the name of his newborn granddaughter. This happens because the preservation and strengthening of memory traces depends on the functional activity of the cerebral cortex, i.e. on the degree of excitability and, so to speak, the performance of her nerve cells, which are significantly reduced by old age.

THE PHENOMENONS OF CONSERVATION AND FORGETTING

Among the phenomena of forgetting and retaining materials in memory is the dependence between the material that is memorized and that which is brought up for memorization shortly after it.

Example: so, sometimes after a math lesson, a physics lesson can be scheduled. In this case, physics with its mathematical formulations acts as a brake on the assimilation of mathematical material, which is also built on the basis of numerous formulas. This phenomenon is called interference.

Even Ebbinghaus discovered the phenomenon of memory, which was later designated as the edge effect. Subsequently, Ebbinghaus' data received experimental confirmation in the work of other psychologists.

Example: for example, it turned out that the elements located in the beginning and the end of the memorized material located in a row are memorized faster than the elements in the middle. In fact, one of the variants of the edge effect in psychology is the primacy effect. It has been established that the probability of storing several first in the order of elements in the memory is higher compared to the average elements.

One of the most famous phenomena of forgetting and retention in memory is called the Zeigarnik effect or phenomenon, after the Russian psychologist B.V. Zeigarnik, who found out the reliability of the assumptions of its scientific advisor, the famous German psychologist K. Levin.

Example: It was experimentally found that the number of interrupted tasks remembered was approximately twice the number of completed tasks to be remembered.

The Zeigarnik effect was first discovered and studied in the 1920s. However, in the future, experimental verification, having generally confirmed its validity, introduced amendments that must be taken into account when general characteristics this phenomenon of mnemonic activity. It turned out that with very strong interest, completed tasks are better remembered, while with weak motivation, interrupted tasks are better remembered.

A short conclusion can be drawn: that the identification of the phenomena of interference in the processes of memory, the effects of edge and primacy, as well as the Zeigarnik phenomenon does not exhaust the study of the peculiarities of preserving the past in memory with the help of experiments that prevent it from being forgotten. However, in order for memorization to be sufficiently productive, special volitional efforts are required, which can lead to the reproduction and recognition of everything that is important for a person in his practice.

EIDETISM

The existence of individual differences in human memory is a self-evident fact. But over the years, the attention of psychologists has been attracted by the peculiarities of people's memory, which are not found or are very rare in all others that the psychologist had to deal with in conditions experimental research... This phenomenon of exceptional, phenomenal memory is called eidetism (from the Greek word "eidos" - image). Eidetism is the ability of some people to preserve and reproduce a detailed image of previously perceived objects and phenomena.

Example: the Russian psychologist A.R. Luria investigated the peculiarities of the memory of S. Shereshevsky, whose ability to memorize and retain in memory a huge verbal material was really phenomenal. Shereshevsky could remember from the first presentation dozens of numbers, meaningless syllables, words of a foreign language that he did not know, and for many years retain in his memory the material that was first perceived by him and retained in his memory without change. So, he was able to accurately reproduce a series consisting of only two words - red and blue, in a random combination: red, red, blue, blue, blue, red, red, blue, blue, blue, blue, red, red, red , blue, etc.

Until now, there is no way to explain the mechanism of the phenomenal memory of individuals. In cases where eideticism is combined with computational power, the eidetic is able to operate at speed, performing computations that are not capable of computers of the latest generations.

For example, a young engineer I. Shelushkov once took part in a "competition" with a computer of the "3rd generation" and performed very complex calculations, significantly ahead of a computer. However, phenomenal memory does not belong to the absolute conditions for the success of a person's creative activity. Memory is only one of them, but not the only one for the implementation of productive human creativity. Of course, if a person, other things being equal, has a rare memory, then this facilitates his path to mastery.

Example: according to the testimony of contemporaries, A.S. Pushkin was especially distinguished by an extraordinary memory. As soon as he read a page of some text twice, he could already repeat it by heart. The famous French artist Gustave Dore had a remarkable visual memory, whose magnificent illustrations for the books of Rabelais, Cervantes, Dante are well known in all countries. Many writers, artists, composers, politicians: Tolstoy, Levitan, Ge, Rachmaninov, Mozart, Balakirev, Suvorov and others. The list goes on easily.

RECOGNITION AND PLAYBACK

memory eidetism psychology

The main types that characterize mnemonic activity - memorization, preservation, forgetting, recognition and reproduction, can only conditionally be isolated for consideration and in real life of a person are inseparable from each other. Ultimately, this is a single mnemonic process. You cannot talk about memorization without taking into account the preservation of what was remembered, the imperiousness of the main thing, and at the same time forgetting what is secondary.

However, it is impossible to discuss issues related to recognition and reproduction, if you do not take into account that these processes are provided by the preservation of what is remembered in the absence of forgetting. Thus, the dismemberment of the mnemonic process into its component parts makes sense only for the implementation of the purpose of the experiment, study and teaching.

As follows from the above, forgetting the past is a process that has not one, but many different reasons. It cannot be compared to simply smoothing out footprints in the sand or erasing chalk on a blackboard. V different ages, in different life circumstances, in different types of activity, different material is forgotten, as it is remembered, in different ways. To understand the possibility of overcoming forgetting, it is necessary to turn to the forms of restoring in a person's memory what constituted his past experience, namely, the processes of recognition and reproduction.

In recognition, memory is supported in the direct perception of familiar objects.

Recognition is the recognition of a perceived object that is already known from past experience. In contrast to recognition, the process of reproduction is a more complex form of mnemonic activity. It requires volitional efforts, and sometimes a rather long-term tension of a person's mental activity.

Reproduction is a type of memory that involves the restoration and reconstruction of past experience and the construction of corresponding representations.

Let us ask the subject a question: what happened to you a month ago? What have you read? Where were you? What events excited you on this day? What did the newspapers write about that day? All these questions are not easy to answer. Almost everyone will say "forgot". But why did you forget? The answer will be simple: a lot of time has passed. This is partly true. But it is not only and not always the case.

One more question: how did you conduct the last new year's eve? This question is much easier to answer. And although many months have passed since that night, she still has not forgotten. Why? Because emotional impressions are associated with this night. Consequently, it is not only a matter of time separating a person from an event or fact that he wants to remember, but also in the nature of this fact: in its significance for him, in its connection with feelings that once worried a person.

In recognition, memory is supported in the direct perception of familiar objects. Its comparative ease, in contrast to reproduction, is explained by the fact that the paths for renewing the image of the past have been blazed and the perception of an object is accompanied by a feeling of something familiar.

But far from everything that is preserved is immediately recognized with a new perception or repetition of some actions. It happens, for example, that a student does not recognize the type of an algebraic problem on the exam, although it is easy to find that this type is familiar to him, that associations from solving similar problems have been preserved in his brain. However, the necessary associations are not revived, and the unnecessary ones lead thoughts aside and interfere with recognition. And not everything that is easily recognized, for example the text of a recently read book or details of a picture seen, is reproduced with due completeness and accuracy. Often, a person not only cannot tell "as a keepsake" about the device, which he carefully observed a few days ago, but even clearly imagine its appearance. And it turns out to be easy to recognize this device.

If this process does not have a predetermined goal, the reproduction takes the form of freely flowing unintended memories. Lively, vivid images, usually emotionally colored, quickly, due to the revitalization of associations, evoke and replace each other; pictures of the past appear in the brain now more clearly, now dimly.

In the main types of human activity (in particular, in work and training), more complex reproduction is constantly required. A person has to remember the requirements and tasks that life has set for him. He must imagine the goal of his actions and consistently remember the planned ways to achieve it, for example: disassemble, clean, lubricate and re-assemble the motor; clearly and consistently talk about the circumstances preceding the attack of Nazi Germany on Soviet Union in 1941, on the reasons for the temporary successful actions of the Wehrmacht at the beginning of the war.

At the same time, some associations are consolidated, being necessary or useful, as they help to orientate and actively act; others, on the contrary, can cause images and thoughts that distract a person, prevent him from working with a certain consistency and clarity, or say what follows, and therefore they are inhibited.

The organization and purposefulness of any serious activity in human society gives memory, and in particular the processes of reproduction, a selective and intentional character.

As a rule, people remember exactly what needs to be reproduced in a given life situation, which is important for the successful satisfaction of their needs. However, often what needs to be reproduced in the course of the activity is not immediately renewed in the form of sensory images, words or movements. Inhibition caused by extraneous impressions and fatigue interferes with playback. In this case, it turns out that the person does not have the willingness to reproduce knowingly familiar material. The latter is temporarily or permanently forgotten.

In many cases, nevertheless, he himself has to, tensely, persistently thinking about what is connected with forgotten impressions, facts, formulations, to achieve recollection - that is, intentional and active reproduction. In the processes of remembering a forgotten mathematical formula, spelling rules, dosage of individual components in a complex recipe or a lyric poem that matches the mood, it is easy to notice the unity of memory processes with active thinking, willpower, and concentration of attention. It is even found in the expression on the face of the recalling person.

There are cases when something temporarily forgotten is subsequently recalled without effort.

Example: for example, a student who vainly tried to remember the capitals of Latin America on the exam in geography, talking at home about the answer, to his surprise, easily recalls and names them completely correctly.

A possible cause of his recent forgetfulness was the fatigue caused by his late studies the day before. Meanwhile, when the tension subsided, there was a "floating" of what needed to be reproduced. For this, there is no longer any need for any effort. Everything happens "by itself." This phenomenon is called reminiscence - an involuntary renewal of images of the past without the implementation of the tasks of recall.

CONCLUSION

Common to all these diverse processes, which are usually united by the term memory, is that they reflect or reproduce the past previously experienced by the individual. Thanks to this, the possibilities of reflecting reality are significantly expanded - from the present it extends to the past. Without memory, we would beat with creatures of the moment. Our past would be dead to the future. The present, as it proceeds, would irrevocably disappear in the past. There would be no knowledge or skills based on the past. There would be no psychic life, closed in the unity of personal consciousness, and the fact of an essentially continuous teaching, passing through our entire life and making us what we are, would be impossible.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF UKRAINE

Kharkiv National University

named after V.N. Karazin

Department of Sociology

In the discipline "General psychology"

MEMORY, TYPES AND PROCESSES OF MEMORY

Performed:

1st year student

Groups SC-12

Melnik Maria Petrovna

Checked:

Associate Professor at the Department of Applied Psychology,

to. psychol. D., associate professor

Soroka Anatoly Vladimirovich

INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………… ... 1

SECTION I. MAIN TYPES OF MEMORY ……………………… ..… .2

1.1. By the duration of preservation of the material ……………………….… ..2

1.2. By the nature of mental activity ……. …………………………… ... 3

1.3. By the nature of the objectives of the activity ……………. ……………………… ...… ..4

SECTION II. MEMORY PROCESSES ………………………………… ... 5

2.1. Memorization ………………………………………………………………… 5

2.2. Saving ………………………………………………………………… ..6

2.3. Playback ………………………………………………………… 7

2.4. Recognition ………………………………………………………………… 8

2.5. Forgetting …………………………………………………………………… 8

CONCLUSION …………. ……………………………………………………… 10

REFERENCES ………………………………………………………… 11

Memory – a form of mental reflection, consisting in the consolidation, preservation and subsequent reproduction of past experience, making it possible to reuse it in activity or return to the sphere of consciousness. Memory connects the subject's past with his present and future and is the most important cognitive function underlying development and learning.

The images of objects or processes of reality that we perceived earlier, and now mentally reproduce, are called views .

Memory views are divided into singular and general.

Memory views are reproduction, more or less accurate, of objects or phenomena that once influenced our senses.

Representing the imagination- this is an idea of ​​objects and phenomena that we have never perceived in such combinations or in this form. Such representations are a product of our imagination. The representations of the imagination are also based on past perceptions, but these latter serve only as material from which we create new representations and images with the help of imagination.

Memory is based on associations, or connections ... Objects or phenomena connected in reality are also connected in the memory of a person. Having met with one of these objects, we can by association recall another associated with it. To remember something means to associate memorization with what is already known, to form an association. From a physiological point of view, an association is a temporary neural connection. There are two kinds of associations: simple and complex. .

The simple ones include:

1. Adjacency associations combine two phenomena related in time or space.

2. Similarity associations connect two phenomena that have similar features: when one of them is mentioned, the other is remembered. Associations are based on the similarity of neural connections that are triggered in our brain by two objects.

3. Contrast associations connect two opposite phenomena. This is favored by the fact that in practice these opposite objects (organization and laxity,

responsibility and irresponsibility, health and illness, sociability and isolation, etc.) are usually compared and compared, which leads to the formation of the corresponding neural connections.

In addition to these types, there are complex associations – semantic... They connect two phenomena, which in reality are constantly connected: part and whole, genus and species, cause and effect. These associations are the foundation of our knowledge.

It is generally accepted that the formation of connections between different representations is determined not by what the memorized material itself is, but primarily by what the subject does with it. That is, the activity of the individual is the main factor that determines (determines) the formation of all mental processes, including memory processes.

MAIN TYPES OF MEMORY

Memory can be conditionally subdivided by the duration of the preservation of the material(for instant, short-term, operational, long-term and genetic), by the nature of mental activity(motor memory, visual, auditory, olfactory, tactile, emotional, etc.) and by the nature of the objectives of the activity(arbitrary, involuntary).

FOR DURATION OF MATERIAL SAVING:

· Instant , or iconic , memory is associated with maintaining an accurate and complete picture of what has just been perceived by the senses, without any processing of the information received. This memory is a direct reflection of information by the senses. Its duration is from 0.1 to 0.5 s. Instant memory is a complete residual impression that arises from direct perception of stimuli. This is a memory-image.

· Short-term memory is a way of storing information for a short period of time. The duration of retention of mnemonic traces here does not exceed several tens of seconds, on average about 20 (without repetition). In short-term memory, not a complete, but only a generalized image of the perceived, its most essential elements, is preserved. This memory works without a prior conscious mindset to memorize,

but on the other hand, with the aim of the subsequent reproduction of the material. Short-term memory is characterized by such an indicator as volume.

· It is on average equal to 5 to 9 units of information and is determined by the number of units of information that a person is able to accurately reproduce several tens of seconds after a single presentation of this information to him. From instant memory to short-term memory, only that information that is recognized, correlates with the actual interests and needs of a person, attracts his increased attention.

· Operational is called a memory designed to store information for a certain, predetermined period, in the range from a few seconds to several days. The storage period for the information of this memory is determined by the task facing the person, and is designed only for the solution of this task. After that, the information may disappear from the RAM. In terms of the duration of information storage and its properties, this type of memory occupies an intermediate position between short-term and long-term.

· Long-term is a memory capable of storing information for an almost unlimited period. Information that has entered the storage of long-term memory can be reproduced by a person as many times as he wants without loss. Moreover, repeated and systematic reproduction of this information only strengthens its traces in long-term memory. The latter presupposes the ability of a person at any necessary moment to recall what was once remembered by him. When using long-term memory for recall, thinking and efforts of will are often required, therefore, its functioning in practice is usually associated with these two processes.

· Genetic memory can be defined as one in which information is stored in the genotype, transmitted and reproduced by inheritance. The main biological mechanism for storing information in such memory is, apparently, mutations and associated changes in gene structures. Human genetic memory is the only one that we cannot influence through training and education.

BY THE NATURE OF MENTAL ACTIVITY:

· Visual memory associated with the preservation and reproduction of visual images. It is extremely important for people of all professions, especially for engineers and artists. Good visual memory is often possessed by people with eidetic perception, who are able to "see" the perceived picture in their imagination for a sufficiently long time after

4 how she stopped acting on the senses. In this regard, this type of memory presupposes a developed human capacity for imagination. In particular, the process of memorizing and reproducing material is based on it: what a person can visualize visually, he, as a rule, is easier to remember and reproduce.

· Auditory memory - it is good memorization and accurate reproduction of various sounds, for example, musical, speech. It is necessary for philologists, people studying foreign languages, acoustics, musicians. A special kind of speech memory is verbal-logical memory, which is closely related to word, thought and logic. This type of memory is characterized by the fact that a person who possesses it can quickly and accurately remember the meaning of events, the logic of reasoning or any evidence, the meaning readable text etc. He can convey this meaning in his own words, and quite accurately. This type of memory is possessed by scientists, experienced lecturers, university teachers and school teachers.

· Motor memory represents memorization and preservation, and, if necessary, reproduction with sufficient accuracy of a variety of complex movements. She participates in the formation of motor, in particular labor and sports, skills and abilities. Improving human hand movements is directly related to this type of memory.

· Emotional memory - it is a memory for experiences. She participates in the work of all types of memory, but is especially manifested in human relations... The strength of memorization of material is directly based on emotional memory: what causes a person emotional experiences, is remembered by them without much difficulty and for a longer period.

· Tactile, olfactory, gustatory and other types of memory do not play a special role in human life, and their capabilities are limited in comparison with visual, auditory, motor and emotional memory. Their role is mainly reduced to meeting biological needs or needs related to the safety and self-preservation of the body.

BY THE NATURE OF THE OBJECTIVES OF THE ACTIVITY:

· Involuntary memory- This is memorization and reproduction, which occurs automatically and without much effort on the part of a person, without setting him a special mnemonic task (for memorization, recognition, preservation or reproduction). Involuntary memorization is not necessarily weaker than voluntary, in many cases of life it surpasses it.

Involuntarily, the material with which it is associated is better remembered

interesting and difficult mental work and which is of great importance for a person

· Arbitrary memory- there is necessarily a task of memorizing, recognizing, preserving or reproducing, and the process of memorizing or reproducing itself requires volitional efforts.

MEMORY PROCESSES

• Memorization - the process of memory, through which traces are imprinted, new elements of sensation, perception, thinking or experience are introduced into the system of associative links. The basis of memorization is the connection of the material with the meaning into one whole. The establishment of semantic connections is the result of the work of thinking on the content of the memorized material.

The initial form of memorization is involuntary memorization that occurs without a predetermined goal, without using any techniques. One involuntarily remembers what a person encounters in Everyday life, which is associated with his interests and needs, with the goals and objectives of his activities (surrounding objects, events of everyday life, the content of films and books, the actions of people, etc.)

In contrast to involuntary memorization, there is arbitrary (intentional) memorization, when a person sets a goal for himself - to remember what is planned, and uses special memorization techniques. Voluntary memorization is a complex mental activity subordinated to the task of memorizing and including a variety of actions performed in order to better achieve this goal. In the learning process, intentional memorization often takes the form of memorization, i.e. multiple repetitions teaching material to complete and error-free memorization.

Much of what is perceived in life a large number of times is not remembered by us, if the task is not worth remembering. And at the same time, if you set this task in front of you and perform all the actions necessary for its implementation, memorization proceeds with relatively great success and turns out to be quite durable. At the same time,

has the formulation of not only a general task (remember what is perceived), but more particular, special tasks. In some cases,

for example, the task is to remember only the main, main thoughts, the most essential facts, in others - to remember literally, thirdly, to remember exactly the sequence of facts, etc. The setting of special tasks has a significant impact on memorization, under its influence, its very process changes.

Memorization, included in any activity, turns out to be much more effective than intentional memorization and memorization, since it turns out to be dependent on the activity in the course of which it is performed.

An important characteristic of the memorization process is the degree of comprehension of the memorized material. There is meaningful and rote memorization.

Rote- memorization without realizing the logical connection between different parts of the perceived material. The basis of such memorization is contiguity associations (one part of the material is associated with another only because it follows it in time; to establish such a connection, multiple repetitions of the material are required)

Meaningful memorization- is always associated with the processes of thinking and relies on generalized connections between parts of the material. It is based on understanding the logical connections between separate parts of the material (for example, two positions, from which one is a conclusion from the other). Meaningful memorization is much more productive than mechanical memorization, it requires less effort and less time to memorize. Methods for comprehending the material: highlighting the main ideas of the text and grouping them in the form of a plan; highlighting semantic reference points; comparison; concretization, explanation of general rules by examples; repetition.

· Preservation - the process of active processing, systematization, generalization of material, mastering it. Keeping memorized depends on the depth of understanding. Well-meaningful material is better remembered. Preservation also depends on the setting of the personality. The material that is significant for the individual is not forgotten. Forgetting occurs unevenly: immediately after memorization, forgetting is stronger, then it goes slower. That is why repetition should not be postponed, it should be repeated soon after memorization, until the material is forgotten. 7 Sometimes, when saving, a phenomenon is observed reminiscences. Its essence is that reproduction, delayed by 2-3 days, turns out to be better than immediately after memorization. Reminiscence is especially pronounced if the original reproduction was not meaningful enough. From a physiological point of view, reminiscence is explained by the fact that immediately after memorization, according to the law of negative induction, inhibition occurs, and then it is removed. It has been established that preservation can be dynamic or static. Dynamic preservation is manifested in RAM, and static preservation in long-term memory. With dynamic preservation, the material changes little, with static preservation, on the contrary, it necessarily undergoes reconstruction and certain processing. The strength of preservation is provided by repetition, which serves as reinforcement and protects against forgetting, i.e., from the fading of temporary connections in the cerebral brain. Repetition should be varied, carried out in different forms: in the process of repetition, facts must be compared, contrasted, they must be brought into a system. With a monotonous repetition, there is no mental activity, interest in memorization decreases, and therefore conditions for lasting preservation are not created. The application of knowledge is even more important for conservation. When knowledge is applied, it is memorized involuntarily.

· Playback - it is the process of recreating the image of an object that we previously perceived, but not perceived at the moment.

It can be unintentional (involuntary) and intentional (arbitrary).

In the first case, reproduction occurs unexpectedly for ourselves. A special case of unintentional reproduction is the appearance of images that are characterized by exceptional stability.

In voluntary reproduction, as opposed to involuntary, we recall with a consciously set goal. Such a goal is to strive to recall something from our past experiences. There are cases when reproduction takes place in the form of more or less prolonged recollection. In these cases, the achievement of the set goal - remembering something - is carried out through the achievement of intermediate goals that allow solving the main task. For example, in order to remember an event, we try to remember all the facts that are in one way or another connected with it. Moreover, the use of intermediate links is usually deliberate. We deliberately outline what can help us remember, or think in what relation to it is that

that we are looking for, or we evaluate everything that we remember, or we judge why it does not fit, and so on. Consequently, the processes of remembering are closely related to the processes of thinking.

At the same time, in recalling, we often encounter difficulties. We remember at first the wrong thing, reject it and set ourselves the task of remembering something again. Obviously, all this requires certain volitional efforts from us. Therefore, remembering is at the same time a volitional process.

· Recognition - the manifestation of memory, which occurs when the object is re-perceived.

Recognition of an object occurs at the moment of its perception and means that the perception of an object occurs, the idea of ​​which was formed in a person either on the basis of personal impressions (memory representation), or on the basis of verbal descriptions(imagination representation).

Its elementary primary form is more or less automatic recognition in action - involuntary recognition... It occurs when new impressions significantly coincide with previous impressions and there is sufficient strength to preserve these previous impressions. Involuntary recognition manifests itself in the form of an adequate response to a familiar stimulus.

Recognition becomes arbitrary and turns into a process recollections with insufficient coincidence of new impressions with previous impressions, and also with insufficient durability of preserving these previous impressions. In recollection, at first there is a feeling of familiarity of the object, which, however, does not yet allow it to be identified with anything known. And only in the future, finding common features with previous impressions, we recognize the subject. It was shown that the volume of recall is less than the volume of recognition. Based on a sense of familiarity, false recognition .

The opposite of false recognition is the phenomenon of the loss of the familiar. If there is a persistent loss of familiarity, it is agnosia(violation of objects of recognition, phenomena with clear consciousness due to damage to the cerebral cortex).

· Forgetting - the natural process of a gradual decrease in the possibility of recalling and reproducing memorized material.

Like storage and memorization, it is selective. the physiological basis for forgetting is the inhibition of temporary connections. First of all, what is forgotten is that which is not of vital importance for a person, does not arouse his interest, does not correspond to his needs.

Forgetting can be complete or partial, long-term or temporary. With complete forgetfulness the fixed material is not only not reproduced, but also unrecognizable. Partial forgetting material occurs when a person does not reproduce it all or with errors, as well as when he recognizes, but cannot reproduce. Physiologists explain temporary forgetting by inhibition of temporary nervous connections, complete forgetting - by their extinction.

The process of forgetting is uneven: first quickly, then more slowly. During the first five days after memorization, forgetting is faster than in the next five days. The most complete and accurate reproduction of complex and extensive material usually occurs not immediately after memorization, but after 2-3 days. This improved delayed playback is called reminiscence (vague memory) .

Forgetting largely depends on the nature of the activity immediately preceding memorization and occurring after it. The negative influence of the activity preceding memorization is called projective inhibition... The negative impact of the activity following memorization is called retroactive inhibition, it is especially pronounced in those cases when, after memorization, an activity similar to it is performed or if this activity requires significant effort.

To reduce forgetting it is necessary:

1.understanding, comprehending information (mechanically learned, but not fully understood information is forgotten quickly and almost completely);

2. repetition of information (the first repetition is necessary 40 minutes after memorization, since after an hour only 50% of mechanically memorized information remains in memory). It is necessary to repeat more often in the first days after memorization, since these days the losses from forgetting are maximum.

CONCLUSION

Our psychic world is very diverse. Thanks to the high level of development of our psyche, we can and can do a lot. In turn, mental development is possible because we retain the acquired experience and knowledge. Everything that we learn, every our experience, impression or movement, leaves a certain trace in our memory, which can persist for a sufficiently long time and, under appropriate conditions, appear again and become the subject of consciousness. That's why memory - this is the imprinting, preservation, subsequent recognition and reproduction of traces of past experience... It is thanks to memory that a person is able to accumulate information without losing previous knowledge and skills. Memory occupies a special place among mental cognitive processes, combining all cognitive processes into a single whole. The awareness that the object or phenomenon perceived at the moment was perceived in the past is called recognition . However, we can not only recognize objects. We can evoke in our knowledge the image of an object, which at the moment we do not perceive, but perceived it before. This process - the process of recreating the image of an object that we previously perceived, but not perceived at the moment, is called reproduction . Not only objects perceived in the past are reproduced, but also our thoughts, feelings, desires, fantasies, etc. imprinting , or memorization, of what was perceived, as well as its subsequent preservation ... Thus, memory is a complex mental process, consisting of several private processes connected with each other. Memory is necessary for a person - it allows him to accumulate, preserve and subsequently use personal life experience, knowledge and skills are stored in it.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. A.G. Maklakov
   M15 General psychology. - SPb .: Peter, 2005 .-- 583p .: ill. - (Series "Textbook of the new century")
2. R.S. Nemov H50 Psychology: Textbook. for stud. higher. ped. study. institutions: In 3 books. - 4th ed. - M .: Humanit. ed. center VLADOS, 2003. - Book. 1: General basics psychology. - 688 p.

3. Rubinstein S. L. Fundamentals of General Psychology - St. Petersburg: Publishing House "Peter", 2000 - 712 p .: ill. - (Series "Masters of Psychology")

Everything that a person once perceived does not disappear without a trace - traces of the excitation process remain in the cerebral cortex, which create the possibility of a re-emergence of excitement in the absence of the stimulus that caused it. Thanks to this, a person can remember and save, and subsequently reproduce the image of an absent object or reproduce previously acquired knowledge. Like perception, memory is a process of reflection, but in this case, not only what acts directly is reflected, but also what took place in the past.

Memory- This is a special form of reflection, one of the main mental processes aimed at fixing mental phenomena in the physiological code, preserving them in this form and reproducing them in the form of subjective representations.

In the cognitive sphere, memory occupies a special place; without it, cognition of the surrounding world is impossible. Memory activity is necessary in solving any cognitive task, since memory is the basis of any mental phenomenon and connects a person's past with his present and future. Without the inclusion of memory in the act of cognition, all sensations and perceptions will be perceived as arising for the first time and comprehension of the surrounding world will become impossible.

Physiological foundations of memory.

Memory is based on the property of nervous tissue to change under the influence of an stimulus, to retain traces of nervous excitement. The durability of the tracks depends on what kind of tracks took place. At the first stage, immediately after exposure to the stimulus, short-term electrochemical reactions occur in the brain, causing reversible physiological changes in cells. This stage lasts from several seconds to several minutes and is the physiological mechanism of short-term memory - there are traces, but they have not yet been consolidated. At the second stage, a biochemical reaction occurs, associated with the formation of new protein substances, which leads to irreversible chemical changes in cells. This is a mechanism of long-term memory - traces have become stronger, they can exist for a long time.

In order for the information to be deposited in memory, it takes some time, the so-called time of consolidation, consolidation of traces. A person experiences this process as an echo of an event that has just happened: for some time he continues to see, hear, feel what he does not directly perceive (“stands before his eyes,” “sounds in his ears,” etc.). Consolidation time - 15 minutes.

Temporary loss of consciousness in people leads to forgetting what happened in the period immediately preceding this event - anterograde amnesia occurs - a temporary inability of the brain to capture traces. Objects or phenomena connected in reality are also connected in the memory of a person. To remember something means to associate memorization with what is already known, to form an association. Consequently, the physiological basis of memory is also the formation and functioning of a temporary neural connection (association) between individual links of what was previously perceived. There are two kinds of associations: simple and complex.

Three types of associations are considered simple:

1) by contiguity - two phenomena connected in time or space are combined (Chuk and Gek, Prince and Beggar, alphabet, multiplication table, arrangement of pieces on a chessboard);

2) by similarity - phenomena that have similar features are associated (willow - a woman in a mountain, "cherry blizzard", poplar fluff - snow;

3) in contrast, they connect two opposite phenomena (winter - summer, black - white, heat - cold, health - illness, sociability - isolation, etc.).

Complex (semantic) associations are the basis of our knowledge, since they connect phenomena that are in fact constantly connected:

1) part - whole (tree - branch, hand - finger);

2) genus - species (animal - mammal - cow);

3) cause - effect (smoking in bed leads to a fire);

4) functional connections (fish - water, bird - sky, air).

For the formation of a temporary connection, a repeated coincidence of two stimuli in time is required, i.e., for the formation of associations, repetition is required. Another important condition for the formation of associations is business reinforcement, that is, the inclusion of what is required to be remembered in the activity.

Memory processes.

Memory includes several interrelated processes: memorization, preservation, forgetting and reproduction.

Memorization is a process aimed at retaining the impressions received in memory by linking them with existing experience. From a physiological point of view, memorization is the formation and consolidation in the brain of traces of arousal from the influence of the surrounding world (things, pictures, thoughts, words, etc.). The nature of memorization, its strength, brightness, clarity depend on the characteristics of the stimulus, the nature of the activity, the mental state of the person. The memorization process can take three forms: imprinting, involuntary and voluntary memorization.

Imprinting(imprinting) is a stable and accurate preservation of events as a result of a single presentation of material for a few seconds. The state of imprinting - instant imprinting - occurs in a person at the moment of the highest emotional stress (eidetic images).

Involuntary memorization arises in the absence of a conscious intention to memorize with repeated repetition of the same stimulus, is selective and depends on the actions of a person, that is, it is determined by motives, goals, emotional attitude to activity. Unintentionally, something unusual, interesting, emotionally exciting, unexpected, bright is remembered.

Voluntary memorization in humans, it is the leading form. It arose in the process of labor activity and is caused by the need to preserve knowledge, skills and abilities, without which work is impossible. This is a higher level of memorization with a predetermined goal and the application of volitional efforts.

For greater efficiency of voluntary memorization, the following conditions must be met:

The presence of a psychological mindset for memorization;

Clarification of the meaning of the acquired knowledge;

Self-control, a combination of memorization with reproduction;

Reliance on rational memorization techniques.

The rational methods of memorization (mnemonic methods) include the allocation of support points, the semantic grouping of material, the allocation of the main, main, drawing up a plan, etc.

A kind of voluntary memorization is memorization - systematic, systematic, specially organized memorization using mnemonic techniques.

According to the result, memorization can be literal, close to the text, semantic, requiring mental processing of the material, according to the method - as a whole, in parts, combined. By the nature of the connections, memorization is divided into mechanical and logical (semantic), the effectiveness of which is 20 times higher than mechanical. Logical memorization presupposes a certain organization of the material, understanding of the meaning, connections between parts of the material, understanding the meaning of each word and the use of figurative memorization techniques (diagrams, graphics, pictures).

The main conditions for strong memorization are:

Awareness of the goal, task;

The presence of an installation for memorization;

Rational repetition is active and distributed because it is more effective than passive and continuous repetition.

Retention is a process of more or less long-term retention in memory of information obtained in the experience. From a physiological point of view, preservation is the existence of traces in a latent form. This is not a passive process of retaining information, but a process of active processing, systematization, generalization of material, and mastery of it.

Preservation primarily depends on:

From personality attitudes;

The forces of influence of the memorized material;

Interest in reflected impacts;

Human conditions. With fatigue, weakening of the nervous system, a serious illness, forgetting manifests itself very sharply. Thus, it is known that Walter Scott wrote "Ivanhoe" during a serious illness. Reading the work after recovering, he could not remember when and how he wrote it.

The preservation process has two sides - preservation itself and forgetting.

Forgetting is a natural process of extinction, elimination, erasure of traces, inhibition of connections. It is selective in nature: something is forgotten that is not important for a person, does not correspond to his needs. Forgetting is an expedient, natural and necessary process that allows the brain to free itself from the excess of unnecessary information.

Forgetting can be complete - the material is not only not reproduced, but also not recognized; partial - a person recognizes the material, but cannot reproduce it or reproduces it with errors; temporary - with the inhibition of nerve connections, complete - with their extinction.

The forgetting process is uneven: at first it is fast, then it slows down. The largest percentage of forgetting occurs in the first 48 hours after memorization, and this continues for another three days. For the next five days, forgetting is slower.

Hence the conclusion follows:

It is necessary to repeat the material a short time after memorization (the first repetition - after 40 minutes), since after an hour only 50% of the mechanically memorized information remains in the memory;

It is necessary to distribute repetitions in time - it is better to repeat the material in small portions once every 10 days than three days before the exam;

Understanding, comprehension of information is necessary;

To reduce forgetting, it is necessary to include knowledge in the activity.

The reasons for forgetting can be both non-repetition of the material (fading of connections), and multiple repetition, in which transcendental inhibition occurs in the cerebral cortex.

Forgetting depends on the nature of the activity preceding memorization and occurring after it. The negative influence of the activity preceding memorization is called proactive inhibition, and the activity following memorization is called retroactive inhibition, which occurs in cases when, after memorization, an activity similar to it or requiring significant effort is performed.

The material stored in memory is qualitatively changed, reconstructed, traces become paler, bright colors fade, but not always: sometimes a later, delayed reproduction turns out to be more complete and accurate than the earlier one. This improved delayed reproduction, which is predominantly found in children, is called reminiscence.

Playback- the most active, creative process, which consists in recreating the material stored in memory in the activity and communication. There are the following forms: recognition, involuntary reproduction, voluntary reproduction, recollection and recollection.

Recognition- This is the perception of an object in terms of its repeated perception, which occurs due to the presence of a weak trace in the cerebral cortex. It's easier to learn than to reproduce. A person recognizes 35 out of 50 objects.

Involuntary playback- This is reproduction, which is carried out as if "by itself." There are also compulsive forms of reproduction any representation of memory, movement, speech, which are called perseveration(from lat. persistent). The physiological mechanism of perseveration is the inertia of the excitation process in the cerebral cortex, the so-called "stagnant focus of excitation." Perseveration can occur in a completely healthy person, but is more often observed with fatigue, oxygen starvation. Sometimes an obsession, a thought (idefix) becomes a symptom of a neuropsychic disorder - neurosis.

Random play- This is reproduction with a predetermined goal, awareness of the task, the application of effort.

Recollection- an active form of reproduction associated with tension, requiring volitional effort and special techniques - association, reliance on recognition. Remembrance depends on the clarity of the tasks set, the logical ordering of the material.

Memory- reproduction of images in the absence of perception of the object, "the historical memory of a person."

Types of memory.

Several types of memory are distinguished according to various criteria.

1. By the nature of mental activity prevailing in activity, memory is figurative, emotional and verbal-logical.

Figurative memory includes visual, auditory, eidetic memory (a rare type of memory that retains a vivid image for a long time with all the details of what is perceived, which is a consequence of the inertia of excitation of the cortical end of the visual or auditory analyzers); olfactory, tactile, gustatory and motor, or motor (a special subspecies of figurative memory, which consists in memorizing, preserving and reproducing various movements and their systems). Motor memory is the basis for the formation of practical, labor and sports skills. Figurative memory is inherent in both animals and people.

Emotional memory is a memory for feelings and emotional states, which, being experienced and preserved in consciousness, act as signals either prompting for activity, or deterring from actions that have caused negative experiences in the past. Emotional memory is based on the ability to sympathize, empathize, since it regulates human behavior depending on previously experienced feelings. Lack of emotional memory leads to emotional dullness. In animals, what caused pain, anger, fear, rage is remembered faster and allows them to avoid such situations in the future.

Verbal-logical(semantic, sign) memory is based on the establishment and memorization of semantic concepts, formulations, ideas, sayings. This is a specifically human kind of memory.

2. By the degree of volitional regulation, the presence or absence of a goal and special mnemonic actions are distinguished involuntary memory when information is remembered by itself - without setting a goal, without making any effort, and arbitrary memory, in which memorization is carried out purposefully using special techniques.

3. Duration of mother's retention ala distinguish short-term, long-term and operative memory.

Long-term memory is the main type of memory that provides long-term preservation of the imprinted (sometimes - for the whole life). Long-term memory is of two types: open access, when a person can at will to extract the necessary information, and closed, access to which is possible only under hypnosis. With short-term memory, the material is stored for up to 15 minutes. Working memory involves the retention of intermediate materials in memory as long as a person deals with them.

Properties (quality) of memory.

These include :

Memorization speed - the number of repetitions required to keep the material in memory;

Forgetting rate - the time during which the material is stored in memory;

The amount of memory for completely new material and material that does not make sense is equal to Miller's "magic number" (7 ± 2), indicating the number of units of information held in memory;

Accuracy - the ability to reproduce information without distortion;

Mobilization readiness is the ability to recall the right material at the right moment.

Memory develops through exercise and hard work on memorization, long-term preservation, complete and accurate reproduction. How more people knows, the easier it is for him to memorize new things, linking, associating new material with the already known. With a general decrease in memory with age, the level of professional memory does not decrease, and sometimes it can even increase. All this allows us to draw the following conclusion: memory as a mental phenomenon is not only a gift from nature, but also the result of purposeful upbringing.

Everything that we learn, every our experience, impression or movement, leaves a certain trace in our memory, which can persist for a sufficiently long time and, under appropriate conditions, appear again and become the subject of consciousness. Therefore, by memory we mean imprinting (recording), preservation, subsequent recognition and reproduction of traces of past experience, which allows accumulating information without losing previous knowledge, information, skills.

Memory is a complex mental process, consisting of several private processes connected with each other. Memory is necessary for a person - it allows him to accumulate, preserve and subsequently use personal life experience, knowledge and skills are stored in it.

Memory processes: memorization, preservation, recognition, reproduction and forgetting.

The initial stage of memorization is the so-called. unintentional or involuntary memorization, i.e. memorization without a predetermined goal, without using any techniques. Recently, the close attention of researchers has been drawn to the processes occurring at the very initial stage of memorization. In order for this or that material to be fixed in memory, it must be appropriately processed by the subject. Subjectively, this process is experienced as an echo of an event that has just happened: for a moment, we seem to continue to see, hear, etc. what is no longer directly perceived (stands before the eyes, sounds in the ears, etc.). These processes are called short-term memory. Unlike long-term memory, which is characterized by long-term preservation of material after repeated repetition and playback, short-term memory is characterized by very short retention.

A lot of things that a person encounters in life are involuntarily remembered: surrounding objects, phenomena, events of everyday life, people's actions, the content of books read without any educational purpose.

It is necessary to distinguish voluntary (intentional) memorization from involuntary memorization, characterized by the fact that a person sets a specific goal for himself - to memorize what is planned, and uses special memorization techniques. In the learning process, intentional memorization often takes the form of memorization, i.e. repeated repetition of educational material until complete and error-free memorization. So, for example, poems, definitions, formulas, laws, etc. are memorized. The success of memorization also depends on the extent to which the material is comprehended by a person. With mechanical memorization, words, objects, events, movements are memorized exactly in the order in which they were perceived, without any transformations. Mechanical memorization relies on the spatial and temporal domain of memorized objects. Meaningful memorization is based on understanding the internal logical connections between parts of the material. Meaningful memorization is many times more productive than mechanical memorization. Comprehension of the material is achieved by different methods and, first of all, by highlighting the main ideas in the studied material and grouping them in the form of a plan. Comparison is also a useful memorization technique. finding similarities and differences between objects, phenomena, events, etc. The strength of memorization largely depends on repetition.

What a person has memorized, the brain stores for a more or less long time. Retention as a process of memory has its own laws. It has been established that saving can be dynamic and static. Dynamic storage appears in RAM, and static storage in long-term storage. With dynamic preservation, the material changes little; with static preservation, on the contrary, it undergoes reconstruction and processing.

Extraction of material from memory is carried out using two processes - reproduction and recognition. Reproduction is the process of recreating the image of an object that we previously perceived, but not perceived at the moment. Reproduction differs from perception in that it is carried out after it and outside it. Thus, the physiological basis of reproduction is the renewal of neural connections that were formed earlier during the perception of objects and phenomena. Like memorization, reproduction can be unintentional (involuntary) and intentional (voluntary).

Recognition of an object occurs at the moment of its perception and means that the perception of an object occurs, the idea of ​​which was formed in a person either on the basis of personal impressions (memory representation), or on the basis of verbal descriptions (imagination representation). For example, we recognize the house in which a friend lives, but in which we have never been, and recognition occurs due to the fact that this house was previously described to us, explained by what signs to find it, which was reflected in our ideas about it.

Recognition processes differ from each other in the degree of certainty. Recognition is least definite in those cases when we experience only a sense of familiarity with an object, and we cannot identify it with anything from past experience. For example, we see a person whose face seems familiar to us, but we cannot remember who he is and under what circumstances we could meet with him. Such cases are characterized by the uncertainty of recognition. In other cases, recognition, on the contrary, is characterized by complete certainty: we immediately recognize a person as a certain person. Therefore, these cases are characterized by complete recognition. Both of these variants of recognition unfold gradually, and therefore they are often close to recall, and therefore, are a complex thought and volitional process.

Recognition and reproduction processes are not always carried out with equal success. Sometimes it happens that we can recognize an object, but we are unable to reproduce it when it is absent. There are cases of the opposite kind: we have some kind of ideas, but we cannot say what they are connected with. Most often we have difficulty in reproducing something, and much less often such difficulties arise in recognition. As a rule, we are able to find out if it is impossible to reproduce. Thus, recognition is easier than reproduction.

Forgetting is expressed in the inability to restore previously perceived information. The physiological basis for forgetting is some types of cortical inhibition, which interferes with the actualization of temporary neural connections. Most often this is the so-called fading inhibition, which develops in the absence of reinforcement.

Forgetting comes in two main forms:

1. inability to remember or recognize;
2. incorrect recall or recognition.

Between complete reproduction and total forgetfulness, there are various degrees of reproduction and recognition.

It is customary to distinguish three such levels:

1. reproducing memory;
2. recognition memory;
3. facilitating memory.

Forgetting proceeds unevenly in time. The greatest loss of material occurs immediately after its perception, and later on, forgetting is slower.

A person lives not only in the world of images of the immediately surrounding reality, but also in the world of images that remain with him from past experience. Such traces have a different origin and nature:

• firstly, in the process of evolution in cells, DNA and nervous system accumulated and stored traces of past influences providing adaptive behavior. it biological, or species, memory;
• secondly, people use the past experience of all mankind. It's theirs historical, or social, memory... Images past life preserved in the form of rock paintings, various structures, games, traditions. The main and most essential form of historical memory is writing. The totality of written monuments of different epochs and peoples reflects the entire past of mankind from the moment of its inception;
• thirdly, it individual, or psychological, memory that preserves the traces acquired in the process individual life person. These are knowledge, skills, associations, personal experience. A person accumulates and uses them at the right time.

The main purpose of memory is to update past experience in order to develop solutions to emerging problems. Memory makes a connection between past states of the psyche, present and future actions and mental processes of a person, ensures the coherence and stability of his life experience, the continuity of the existence of consciousness and self-consciousness of the individual. If you imagine that a person loses his memory, this means that he also loses his personality. A person does not know who he is, where he is, what date is today. He cannot speak, read, write, use ordinary things. Memory makes it possible to accumulate impressions of the surrounding world, serves as the basis for the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities. Considering its importance in the formation of human cognition, we can say that memory is the basis of all consciousness.

Memory- This is a reflection of reality, manifested in the preservation and reproduction of traces of past experience.

Through memory, a person reacts to signals or situations that have ceased to directly act on him. Images of memory, in contrast to images of perception, refer to representations.

Representation- these are images of objects and phenomena that are not perceived at the moment, but which were perceived earlier.

Memory representations can be single and common. For example, a person has a view of the house in which he lives and there is a view of the house in general. The richer a person is general views in any area, the more fully and adequately it will perceive real objects. Representations function in the psyche as a process. Any new perception leads to a change in the representation of a specific object.

The properties of memory views are fullness and generalization. Completeness depends on the number of connections of a given object with others. Generalization occurs on the basis of linking each new view to the old one. The tasks that face a person cannot be solved solely through the direct use of memory representations, because new tasks are never an exact copy of the previous ones. The first coincide with the second only in general terms, therefore, each time a person creatively transforms the representations of memory, and does not reproduce them mechanically.

The mechanism for the formation of memory representations is the creation and consolidation temporary connections in the cerebral cortex. There are two theories explaining the physiological processes of the formation of memory representations:

• 1) according to neural theory neurons are formed in circuits (closed circles) through which biocurrents circulate. Under their influence, changes occur in synapses, which facilitates the subsequent passage of biocurrents along these paths;
• 2) according to molecular theory in the protoplasm of neurons, special protein molecules are formed, designed to record and store information.

Temporary connections reflect real associations of objects and phenomena of reality.

The Association the connection between various objects of reality and its reflection in consciousness is called, when the idea of ​​one object causes the appearance of thoughts about another.

By the nature of the connections are distinguished simple and complex associations. Simple associations include connections of objects by contiguity (proximity in space or time), similarity (the presence of common or similar features), contrast (the presence of opposite features); to complex - cause-and-effect, significant semantic connections. Human memory is not a simple accumulation of information in the central nervous system, but its complex organization, which ensures the selection, preservation of the necessary traces and the erasure of unnecessary ones.

G. Ebbinghaus is rightfully considered the founder of the scientific psychology of memory.

Memory as a mental process is mnemonic actions and operations... The main processes of memory are memorization, preservation, reproduction and forgetting.

Memorization Is a memory process through which traces are imprinted, new elements of sensation, perception, thinking or experience are introduced into the system of associative links.

The basis of memorization is made up of connections that unite the memorized material into a semantic whole. The establishment of semantic connections is the result of the work of thinking on the content of the memorized material.

Preservation Is the process of accumulating material in the memory structure, including its processing and assimilation. The preservation of experience creates an opportunity for a person to learn, develop his perceptual processes, thinking and speech.

Playback- the process of updating the elements of past experience (images, thoughts, feelings, movements). A relatively simple form of reproduction is recognition- recognition of a perceived object or phenomenon as already known from past experience by establishing a similarity between the perceived object and the image fixed in memory.

Playback happens involuntary and arbitrary. In case of involuntary reproduction, the image pops up without a special task for updating and without effort on the part of a person. The most common mechanism is associations with present thoughts, images, experiences, or actions. Arbitrary reproduction is carried out as a conscious, deliberate process of updating past images.

If difficulties are encountered during the playback, it goes into recollection.

Recollection- This is an active, volitional process carried out as a detailed mental activity.

In the process of remembering, a person searches for or completes the necessary intermediate links, selects and evaluates them from the point of view of the required task.

example

A typical example of recall is the construction of an oral response by the student. Knowing the nature and structure of recall, the teacher can provide students (if they have difficulties) help in the form of a hint that restores the associative connection. The information reproduced is not an exact copy of what has been recorded in memory. There is always a transformation, a restructuring of information in a specific dependence on the task of the activity, understanding of the material and its significance for the subject.

A lot of images and ideas are preserved in memory, reflecting the events of a person's life, his knowledge, skills and abilities. But not all images are saved, some of them are forgotten.

Forgetting- This is a process of memory, the opposite of preservation, which consists in the loss of the ability to reproduce, and sometimes even recognition of previously memorized.

What is most often forgotten is that which is insignificant for a person, is not connected with his actual activity. Forgetting can be partial or complete. In case of partial forgetting, playback is carried out completely or with errors. When completely forgotten, the object is neither reproduced nor recognized.

The time during which a person is unable to reproduce the forgotten material can be different. According to this criterion, temporary and long forgetting. The first is characterized by the fact that a person cannot remember anything at the right moment, the second - by the fact that he does not remember the material for a long time. The erasure of traces as a mechanism of forgetting occurs in the absence of reinforcement of temporary connections and their extinction.

Many people complain about their memory, consider it undeveloped, bad because they forget a lot. They are wrong about their memory, because without forgetting, normal healthy memory cannot function. A person cannot remember everything that happened to him in the past. As W. James noted, "if we remembered absolutely everything, we would be in the same desperate situation as if we remembered nothing."

One of the modern hypotheses is the assumption that, in fact, a person's entire past is encoded in his brain. Research into "decoding" such information in a state of hypnosis partially confirms it.

• Ebbinghaus Hermann (1850-1909) - German psychologist and philosopher, studied at the universities of Germany, England and France (history, philology, philosophy, psychophysics, psychology). One of the famous founders of the classic experimental psychology in a scientific direction that does not belong to the psychophysiological methodology of experiments of the school of W. Wundt. Since 1880 - assistant professor and professor in Berlin, since 1894 - professor in Breslau, since 1905 - in Halle. By authoring experimental techniques, was the first to systematically study the psychology of memory (the method of meaningless syllables and preservation, the process of memorization, the edge factor, the forgetting curve, etc.). Major works: <<0 памяти" (1885); "Очерк психологии" (1908); "Основы психологии" (1902–1911).