Neoplasms of primary school age briefly. Basic psychological neoplasms of primary school age. Educational activity as a leading one at this age
Neoplasms - achievements in development, characterized by a special type of personality structure and activity, as well as the child's attitude towards himself and other people.
Central neoplasms of the younger school age are:
1) a qualitatively new level of development of arbitrary regulation of behavior and activity;
2) reflection, analysis, internal action plan;
3) development of a new cognitive attitude to reality;
4) orientation to a group of peers.
Primary school age is a stage of significant changes in mental development. Full living by a child of this age period is possible only with the decisive and active role of adults (teachers, parents, educators, psychologists), whose main task is to create optimal conditions for the disclosure and realization of the potential opportunities of younger students, taking into account the individual characteristics of each child.
The value of primary school age
The profound changes taking place in the psychological make-up of the younger schoolchild testify to opportunities child development at this age. During this period, at a qualitatively new level, the potential for the development of the child as an active subject, learning the world and himself, acquiring his own experience of acting in this world.
Primary school age is sensitive for the development, formation, development and formation of the following characteristics:
1) motives for learning, development of sustainable cognitive needs and interests;
2) productive methods and skills of educational work, "ability to learn";
3) individual characteristics and abilities;
4) skills of self-control, self-organization and self-regulation;
6) social norms, moral development;
7) communication skills with peers, establishing strong friendly contacts.
The most important new formations arise in all spheres of mental development: the intellect, personality, social relations are transformed. The leading role of educational activity in this process does not exclude the fact that the younger student is actively involved in other types of activity (play, elements of labor activity, sports, art, etc.), during which the child's new achievements are improved and consolidated.
Primary school age is a period of positive changes and transformations. Therefore, the level of achievements made by each child at this age stage is so important. If at this age the child does not feel the joy of learning, does not acquire the ability to learn, does not learn to make friends, does not gain confidence in his abilities and capabilities, it will be much more difficult to do this in the future (outside the sensitive period) and will require immeasurably higher mental and physical costs. .
The more positive acquisitions a younger student has, the easier it will be for him to cope with the upcoming difficulties of adolescence.
More on the topic Central neoplasms of primary school age:
- Psychological characteristics of the main difficulties in the development of the personality of a teenager, ways to overcome them.
- 31. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MENTAL DEVELOPMENT OF PRESCHOOL CHILDREN. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LEADING ACTIVITIES OF PRESCHOOL CHILDREN.
Cognitive sphere of the child
In early school age, great changes occur in the cognitive sphere of the child. Memory acquires a pronounced arbitrary character. Changes in the field of memory are connected with the fact that the child, firstly, begins to realize a special mnemonic task. This task in preschool age either does not stand out at all, or stands out with great difficulty. Secondly, at primary school age there is an intensive formation of memorization techniques. From the most primitive techniques at an older age, the child moves to grouping, understanding the connections different parts material. Learning activities contributes to the development of the cognitive abilities of the child. IN kindergarten the activity of the child is limited to familiarization with the environment, the child is not given a system of scientific concepts. At school, in a relatively short period of time, the child must master the system of scientific concepts - the basis of the sciences. The development of mental operations is required from the child. In the process of schooling, not only the assimilation of individual knowledge and skills takes place, but also their generalization and, at the same time, the formation of intellectual operations. Thus, primary school age is the age of intensive intellectual development.
Intelligence mediates the development of all other functions, there is an intellectualization of all mental processes, their awareness and arbitrariness. So, the main psychological neoplasms of primary school age are:
1. The arbitrariness and awareness of all mental processes and their intellectualization, their internal mediation, which occurs due to the assimilation of a system of scientific concepts. Everyone but the intellect. The intellect does not yet know itself.
2. Awareness of one's own changes as a result of the development of educational activities. All these achievements indicate the transition of the child to the next age period, which completes childhood.
Educational activity is the leading activity of a younger student. The essence of learning activity is the appropriation of scientific knowledge. The child, under the guidance of a teacher, begins to operate with scientific concepts.
psychological child attention memory training
The problem of psychological readiness for schooling
The existing school, with its class-lesson system and existing programs, requires a certain level of functional readiness from the child. "School maturity" is usually considered the achievement of such a stage of neuropsychic development when the child becomes able to take part in schooling in a group of peers without prejudice to his physical and mental health; it also implies the mastery of skills, knowledge, skills, abilities, motives and other behavioral characteristics necessary for the optimal level of assimilation school curriculum. IN domestic psychology at the origins of the study of the problem of readiness for schooling were L.I. Bozhovich, A.V. Zaporozhets, D.B. Elkonin. Psychological readiness for schooling is considered as a multicomponent education. Although there is no consensus on the composition and level of development of its individual components, the following components are usually distinguished:
). personal readiness. The level of development of the affective-need (motivational) sphere. The presence of cognitive interests. The desire to take their special place in the system of social relations, to be a schoolboy. The "internal position of a schoolchild" as an indicator of a child's readiness for schooling is a psychological neoplasm, which is a fusion of the child's cognitive needs and the need to take a more mature social position. The development of an arbitrary sphere: arbitrary attention, arbitrary memory, the ability to act according to a model, according to a rule, according to an accepted intention.
). Intellectual readiness. Orientation in the environment, a stock of knowledge. The level of development of perception and visual - figurative thinking. The level of generalization is the ability to generalize and differentiate objects and phenomena. Development of the speech sphere (including phonemic hearing).
). Motor readiness. Fine motor skills. Large movements (arms, legs, whole body).
). The level of development of the prerequisites for educational activity: the ability to listen carefully and accurately follow the consistent instructions of an adult, act independently on a task, focus on a system of task conditions, overcoming distraction from side factors.
A preschool child does not and cannot have proper school qualities, they are formed in the activity for which they are necessary. Readiness for schooling is the possession of the prerequisites for the subsequent assimilation of the qualities of a student. Leading among them is the motivational, social maturity of the child. In the case of poor preparation of the child for school, a lag in all areas is usually manifested, but when creating correctional and developmental programs, special attention is paid to overcoming the underdevelopment of the affective-need sphere, the narrowness of cognitive interests.
Psychological readiness is distinguished from pedagogical readiness, when the emphasis is placed on the child's having certain knowledge and skills (performing tasks for direct and backward counting, composition of numbers, recognition block letters, or reading, copying letters or a pattern, retelling a text or reading a poem, etc.).
Leading activity of a junior student
The younger student is actively involved in various activities - playing, working, sports and art. However, teaching takes on a leading role in primary school age. Learning activities are not limited to visiting educational institution or the acquisition of knowledge as such. Knowledge can be a by-product of play, recreation, or work. Educational activity is an activity directly aimed at the assimilation of knowledge and skills developed by mankind. Only when a special conscious goal is set to learn something new, which one did not know or did not know before, can one speak of special form activities - teaching.
The subject of the activity of teaching is knowledge and actions as elements of culture, science, existing at first objectively, externally in relation to the student. After the teaching, this knowledge becomes his property, thus, the transformation of the subject of activity takes place. The product, the result of the activity of the teaching are the changes of the student himself. Educational activity is an activity of self-development, self-change (in the level of knowledge, skills, abilities, in the level of general and mental development).
The leading role of educational activity is expressed in the fact that it mediates the entire system of relations between the child and society (it is social in meaning, content and form of organization), it forms not only individual mental qualities, but also the personality of the younger student as a whole.
Educational activity is complex in structure and by the beginning of schooling is only beginning to take shape. In the traditional system of education, the formation of learning activities, as a rule, is not given due attention. The formation of teaching is a long, complex process that requires efforts and guidance from adults - teachers and parents. The structure of educational activity includes: motives; learning objectives; learning activities; control actions; assessment actions.
Motives of educational activity at primary school age
For the implementation of activities, the formation of the motivational sphere is necessary; as a rule, it is a system of various needs, motives, goals, interests.
A child often comes to school with the motive to "become a schoolboy", to get a new, more adult status. And at first, the motivating power of this trend can be amazingly strong. However, after a while the position of the schoolboy becomes habitual; this motive gradually loses its motivating value. The category of so-called external motives (which lie outside the educational process and are associated only with its result) includes social motives. Social motives meet the needs of the child in communicating with other people, in their approval, in occupying a certain place in the system of social relations. There are broad social motives (to study in order to be cultural, developed; to take a worthy place after graduation, to find a good well-paid job; motives of duty and responsibility) and narrow-minded ones, including positional ones (to avoid deuce, meet the expectations of parents, reduce anxiety, be the best student in the class, "five"). Broad social motives in primary school age are more often classified as known, understood (according to A.N. Leontiev). Narrow social motives are more often real. Focusing only on the result (on praise, mark) narrows the content of the teaching, generates school system coercion. For example, in order to get a good grade (avoid a deuce), you can establish friendly relations with a neighbor on the desk so that he will let you cheat on the control.
For effective organization learning, it is important that the motive has an internal character, i.e. so that the content of the activity and the motive would correspond to each other. Such, for example, is educational and cognitive motivation that meets the cognitive need, the need for intellectual activity ("I want to know everything", "I like to learn interesting things").
Cognitive interests are expressed in children in very different degrees. But, as a rule, the motives of cognition do not occupy a leading place among younger students. The emergence and maintenance of cognitive interest in the lower grades is traditionally associated with playful and emotional methods of organizing a lesson, making the material to be learned interesting, etc. Based on these methods, starting from them, it is necessary to form internal cognitive motivation, theoretical interest (for example, to find a common way to solve all problems of this type).
It is also important to draw the attention of the child to the process of self-change, highlight the phenomenon of the growth of one's own capabilities and give it value, turn the student to self-assessment.
Features of cognitive interests and motives, the age dynamics of the motivational sphere are not given once and for all and inevitably inherent in schoolchildren at a particular age stage. The use of modern teaching and upbringing methods makes it possible to deepen, correct or even transform the type of attitude to learning, to form a positive and stable motivation for learning activities.
Motivational problems in teaching younger students
The child comes to school without educational motives, the teacher must form them. problems arise due to the lack of motives of duty in children (children choosing between “I want” and “need” choose what is closer to them, that is, “I want”), the child’s low capabilities (children are often bored in the classroom due to the complexity of the material or its simplicity, as a result of which motivation for the lesson is lost.) Difficulties in learning can be caused by:
lack of formation of the necessary elements of educational activity (the position of the student, cognitive motivation, suitable educational activities, etc.);
insufficient development of arbitrariness, low level of memory, attention, dependence on adults;
inability or inability to adapt to the pace of school life, personality disorders, focus on other, extracurricular interests.
learning task
A clear idea of what is to be mastered, what is to be mastered. In contrast to a specific practical task (for example, to solve examples for adding two numbers), the educational task is more general in nature (to learn addition with the transition through a dozen). Without special attention to the difference between task and learning task many students, up to the senior classes, do not consciously single out the learning task.
This is evidenced by such a common way of doing homework: first, written Russian, i.e. exercise with the task "insert the missing letters." I copied it, inserted it, and only then, for a snack, I read the rule, which turns out to be jagged, memorized only formally.
The actual learning task involves mastering the general way of solving a whole class of particular practical tasks. Ways of teaching a student to independently identify a learning task: questions about what they learned in the lesson; explanation of the meaning of performing individual exercises (why is it needed); comparison of tasks of different types for the same rule; use of perspective (planning advancement on topics) and retrospective (comparison of new skills and abilities with the level that was before).
The central task of the elementary school is the formation of "the ability to learn." Only the formation of all components of educational activity and its independent implementation can be a guarantee that the teaching will fulfill its function as a leading activity.
Learning activitiesis an activity that turns the child on himself,requires reflection, an assessment of "what I was" and "what I have become." The process of one's own change, reflection on oneself stands out for the subject himself as a new subject.That is why every learning activity begins with the fact that the child is evaluated.The notorious mark is a form of assessment of the changes taking place in the child.
The implementation of educational activities is possible only if the child learns to control his mental processes and behavior in general. This makes it possible to subordinate one's immediate "I want" to what is required by the teacher and school discipline"should" and contributes to the formation arbitrarinessas a special, new quality of mental processes. It manifests itself in the ability to consciously set goals for action and deliberately seek and find means to achieve them, to overcome difficulties and obstacles.
The need for control and self-control, the requirements of verbal reports and assessments form junior schoolchildrenability to planningand performing actions about oneself, in internal plan.The need to distinguish between patterns of reasoning and independent attempts to build them presupposes in the younger student the formation of the ability, as it were, to consider and evaluate their own thoughts and actions from the outside. This skill underlies reflectionsas an important quality that allows you to reasonably and objectively analyze your judgments and actions from the point of view of their compliance with the intention and conditions of activity.
Arbitrariness, internal plan of action and reflection - main neoplasms of primary school age. In addition, within the framework of mastering educational activities, all mental processes are rebuilt and improved.
Learning activities- This is a specific form of individual activity of a younger student, complex in its structure. In this structure, there are: 1) learning situations (or tasks) - what the student must master; 2) learning activities - changes educational material necessary for its development by the student; it is what the student must do to discover the properties of the subject he is studying; 3) self-control actions - this is an indication of whether the student correctly performs an action corresponding to the model; 4) actions self-esteem- determination of whether the student has achieved the result or not.
Learning activities are methods of learning work. Some of them are of a general nature, they are used in the study of various educational subjects (such are the methods of memorization - from literal, mechanical to complex forms of mediated memorization). Others are subject-specific ( sound-letter analysis). The introduction by the teacher of new, more progressive methods of educational work related to the logical processing of the material is of great importance.
Actions of control (indication of the correctness of performance) and self-control, (actions of comparison, correlation of one's own actions with the model given by the teacher). There are different types of control - for the final product; operational, step-by-step, current; perspective, planning. The main direction in the development of the control part of the activity is connected with the gradual transfer to the student himself of the functions of control in an ever-expanding sphere.
The training operations that are part of the action correspond to the specific conditions for solving individual subject tasks. These learning activities are:
1.the action of identifying a problem (learning goal) from the set learning task;
2.the action of identifying a common way to solve a problem based on an analysis of general relationships in the studied educational material, i.e. a general method for solving problems of this type;
.the action of modeling the general relations of educational material and general ways of solving educational problems;
.the action of concretization and enrichment with particular manifestations of general relations and general modes of action;
.the action of monitoring the progress and results of educational activities;
.the action of evaluating the conformity of the course and result of the activity of students to the educational task assigned to them.
Actions of control (indication of the correctness of execution) and self-control (actions of comparison, correlation of one's own actions with the model given by the teacher). There are different types of control - for the final product; operational, step-by-step, current; perspective, planning. The main direction in the development of the control part of the activity is connected with the gradual transfer to the student himself of the functions of control in an ever-expanding sphere.
The activities of assessment and self-assessment are associated with determining whether the result has been achieved, how successfully the learning task has been completed. Summing up what has been learned must be organized in such a way that students experience a sense of emotional satisfaction, the joy of overcoming difficulties and learning new things. Usually, the assessment function is performed by the teacher - in a detailed verbal form or in the form of a mark, but in order to develop the ability to independently evaluate one's own work, it is useful to use various forms of self-control (drawing up a diagram of the material covered; formulating questions to check the level of assimilation; overview reports on certain aspects of the topic, etc. ). Self-assessment as an integral part of the activity of teaching is necessary for the formation of reflection. The performance of self-assessment activities has a regulative retrospective (did I do well or badly?) and predictive value (would I be able to do this task?).
Features of self-esteem of younger students
Studies have shown that younger students have all kinds of self-assessments: adequate stable, overestimated stable, unstable towards inadequate overestimation or underestimation. Moreover, from class to class, the ability to correctly evaluate oneself, one's capabilities increases, and at the same time, the tendency to overestimate oneself decreases. Sustained low self-esteem is extremely rare. All this suggests that the self-esteem of a younger student is dynamic and at the same time tends to be stable, later passes into the internal position of the individual, becomes a motive for behavior, and influences the formation of certain personality traits. So, children with adequate self-esteem are active, cheerful, resourceful, sociable, have a sense of humor. They usually look for errors in their work with interest and independently, choose tasks that correspond to their capabilities. After success in solving the problem, choose the same or more difficult one. After a failure check themselves or take on a less difficult task. Their predictions for their future by the end of primary school age are becoming more and more reasonable and less categorical. Children with high adequate self-esteem are active, striving to achieve success in every activity. They are characterized by maximum independence. They are confident that their own efforts will be able to achieve success. These are the optimists. Moreover, their optimism and self-confidence are based on the correct self-assessment of their capabilities and abilities. Inadequate low self-esteem in younger students is clearly manifested in their behavior and personality traits. If such children are offered to check their work, to find errors in it, they re-read the work silently, without changing anything, or refuse to check themselves, citing the fact that they still won’t see anything. Encouraged and encouraged by the teacher, they gradually get involved in the work and often find mistakes themselves. These children choose only easy tasks, both in life and in experimental situations. They, as it were, cherish their success, they are afraid of losing it, and because of this, they are somewhat afraid of the activity itself. Others are overestimated. Self-doubt in these children is especially evident in their plans for the future. The dominant role in educational activity in the formation of self-esteem is determined by the fact that it is it (learning activity) that forms the prerequisites for abstract theoretical thinking, which contributes to the emergence of reflection. Before mastering scientific concepts, children consciously generalize only visual data, directly perceived signs of an object, and do not know how to compare and generalize their judgments about it.
The development of conceptual forms of thinking causes the emergence by the end of primary school age of the student's ability to self-observation, to analyze and correlate his own methods of activity with the objective situation. Educational activity, as socially valued, dominates in the formation of self-esteem. Evaluating knowledge, the teacher simultaneously evaluates the personality, its capabilities and place among others. This is how kids perceive grades. Focusing on the teacher's assessments, they themselves rank themselves and their comrades as excellent students, average, weak, diligent or undiligent, etc. The development of self-awareness in a child at this age is manifested in the fact that students gradually increase in criticality, demanding of themselves. First-graders predominantly positively assess their educational activities, and failures are associated only with objective circumstances. Second-graders and third-graders are already more critical of themselves, evaluating not only good, but also bad deeds, not only successes, but also their failures in learning. At primary school age, there is a transition from a specific situational self-assessment (assessment of one's actions, deeds) to a more generalized one. Generalized self-assessment implies the ability to reflect, the presence of a standard of moral behavior. Communication with peers - the formation of self-esteem. Self-esteem of younger students is formed and corrected in communication with peers.
Role playing children
At primary school age, role-playing games of children continue to occupy a large place. They are characterized by the fact that, while playing, the student takes on a certain role and performs actions in an imaginary situation, recreating the actions of a particular person. This type of game, as noted by D. B. Elkonin, is particularly sensitive "to the sphere of human activity and relations between people. With all the variety of plots, they hide fundamentally the same content - human activity and people's relations in society." While playing, younger students strive to master those personality traits that attract them to real life. Therefore, children like such roles that are associated with the manifestation of courage, courage, nobility. In the role-playing game, they begin to portray themselves, while striving for a position that does not work out in reality. The positive result of such a game is that the child begins to make demands on himself that are necessary to become a good student. Thus, a role-playing game can be considered as a way to encourage a younger student to self-education. Due to the fact that students primary school there is a need for the game, it can be used as an effective means of education. Of great importance for the development of the role-playing game of younger students is the presence of adult interest in it. The basis of the role-playing game is children's amateur performance. By its nature, it is a collective activity in which coordination of children's efforts is needed. In progress joint activities During role-play, children develop ways to relate to each other. Compared to preschoolers, younger students spend more time discussing the plot and the distribution of roles, and choose them more purposefully. IN conflict situation children show the ability to analyze their activities in previous roles, correctly assess their own capabilities, correlate their actions in an attractive role with the actions of their playmates and resolve the dispute using generalized methods, such as: turns, counting rhymes, etc. At primary school age, children they also enjoy playing didactic games (plot, subject, competitive). They contain the following elements of activity: a game task, game motives, and educational problem solving. As a result, students acquire new knowledge on the content of the game. In contrast to the direct formulation of the learning task, as happens in the classroom, in didactic game it arises as a play task of the child himself. The ways to solve it are educational. A significant place in primary school age is occupied by outdoor games. The growing body of the child requires movement. Children enjoy playing with the ball, running, climbing, jumping. A variety of movements promote metabolism, blood circulation, respiration. Outdoor games also influence the formation of personality traits: they develop will, ingenuity, courage, it becomes possible to measure agility, strength, and intelligence with comrades. Collective sports games and competitions develop the ability to act in a team, support a friend, the desire to fight for the honor of the class, school.
Attention
Attention in itself is not a special cognitive process. It is inherent in any cognitive process (perception, thinking, memory, etc.) and acts as a form, the ability to organize this process. The ability to be attentive is important not only in enriching students with knowledge, skills and abilities, but also in developing their personality. So, if a student carefully performs both an interesting and an uninteresting task, while overcoming unpleasant emotions, then his willpower is trained and perseverance and purposefulness are formed; if the student is attentive to his comrades, shows real concern for them, then he develops a sense of camaraderie. The predominant type of attention ml. shk-ka at the beginning of learning is involuntary, the physiological basis of which is the orienting reflex. The reaction to everything new, bright, unusual is strong at this age. The child cannot yet control his attention and often finds himself at the mercy of external impressions. The visual-figurative nature of mental activity leads to the fact that students direct all their attention to individual, conspicuous objects or their signs. The images and ideas that arise in the minds of children cause strong feelings that have an inhibitory effect on mental activity. Therefore, if the essence of the subject is not on the surface, if it is disguised, then younger students do not even notice it. With the development and improvement of thinking ml. schoolchildren are increasingly becoming able to focus their attention on the main, basic, essential. Attention ml. shk-ka is closely connected with mental activity - students cannot focus their attention on the obscure, incomprehensible. They quickly get distracted and move on to other things. It is necessary to make the difficult, incomprehensible for students simple and accessible, to develop volitional effort, and with it voluntary attention. Throughout ml. school age, involuntary attention develops. The child quickly responds to what interests him, which is related to his needs. If a child is carried away by reading a book, then his involuntary attention will be very stable, which is associated with the emergence of a persistent dominant focus of excitation in the child's cerebral cortex. Therefore, it is very important to educate cognitive interests and needs. Development of voluntary attention. As shown by the studies of Soviet psychologists (L. I. Bozhovich, A. N. Leont'eva, and others), the development of voluntary attention in the case of leadership in this process in the first years of training can occur quite intensively. Of great importance is the development of students' ability to work purposefully. Initially, adults (parents, teachers) set a goal for students, and, if necessary, adults provide assistance to children in achieving it. The highest level of voluntary attention is the ability of the student to be guided by independently set goals. The development of voluntary attention in children goes in the direction from the fulfillment of the goals set by adults to the goals set by the student himself, who controls their implementation. The development of voluntary attention is closely related to the development of responsibility in younger students for the assimilation of knowledge. Students with a responsible attitude to learning are able to force themselves to carefully perform any task, both interesting and uninteresting. Students without a sense of responsibility carefully work only with interesting material. That is why it is very important to instill in students a sense of responsibility. The arbitrariness of attention develops along with the development of its properties. properties of attention. The amount of attention of a junior schoolchild is less than that of an adult, the distribution of attention is weaker. The inability to distribute attention between different types of work leads to the fact that the student strays from the pace of reading, either lags behind or runs ahead. Attention ml. shk-ka is characterized by great instability, easy distractibility. The instability of attention is explained by the fact that in ml. shk-ka excitation prevails over inhibition. Attention can be distracted for various reasons, for example, due to the novelty of the situation, due to the action of the orienting reflex, if visual aids are used incorrectly, etc. A younger student can be engaged in the same type of activity for a very short time due to the rapid onset. fatigue, extreme inhibition. Therefore, the teacher should diversify the activities of students. Attention is closely related to the emotions and feelings of children. Everything that causes them strong feelings, attracts their attention. So, already preschoolers can listen to interesting fairy tales, stories, watch movies for hours. ml. schoolchildren listen with great attention to the teacher's entertaining story and are not distracted for quite a long time. The interests and needs of students have a great influence on attention. What captivates children, as if by itself, attracts attention. Students are especially attentive in the process of creative activity, since here thinking, feelings and will merge together.
Memory
Features of memorization of younger students. Big changes are taking place in the memory processes of the younger schoolchild. Having come to school, children already know how to memorize arbitrarily, but this skill is imperfect. So, a first grader often does not remember what was given at home (this requires arbitrary memorization), although he easily and quickly remembers what is interesting, what causes strong feelings (involuntarily). Feelings have a very great influence on the speed and strength of memorization. Therefore, children easily memorize songs, poems, fairy tales that evoke vivid images and strong feelings.
Involuntary memorization plays an important role in the educational activity of a younger student. By grade 1, involuntary memorization becomes more productive. The productivity of involuntary memorization is manifested in the fact that with age the volume of memorizing interesting texts and fairy tales increases; the child tells more details and conveys the content relatively deeply. Involuntary memorization becomes more meaningful. Some psychologists believe that rote memorization prevails in children of primary school age. Studies by Soviet psychologists show that rote learning in children (as well as in adults) is less effective than meaningful learning: it is more difficult to memorize meaningless material in childhood than in adults. At the same time, such facts are known - children easily memorize incomprehensible (objectively meaningless) and memorize educational material often literally. Objectively meaningless material sometimes intrigues children with its sound side: a peculiar combination of sounds, a clearly defined rhythm, which in itself greatly facilitates memorization. In most cases, counting rhymes evoke a sense of comic or other positive emotional attitude in the child. Very often it is woven into the play activities of children. Mechanical memorization, which the student resorts to when memorizing a given lesson, is explained by the fact that he does not master the rational methods of memorization, the meaning of which we will discuss below. Throughout the entire primary school age, voluntary and meaningful memorization develops. At first, younger students do not have enough self-control. Self-control, as a rule, is carried out on the basis of recognition, when the student, reading repeatedly, experiences a feeling of familiarity. Memorization techniques serve as an indicator of arbitrariness. First, the main technique is to repeatedly read the entire material. Then students begin to use a more complex technique: they alternate reading with reproduction. The most important method of meaningful memorization is the division of the text into semantic parts. At the same time, the division into parts when memorizing the educational material is carried out by younger students not for the purpose of isolating the main, essential, main thing, but for the purpose of sequential memorization of each of these parts separately. This is a purely technical division of the text. Its main task is to outline the order of memorization of individual parts and establish the amount of what needs to be remembered in one step. playback features. At primary school age, reproduction presents great difficulties due to the fact that it requires the ability to set a goal, to activate thinking. Students come to this step by step. The need for repetition during memorization arises earlier for them, and they realize it in recognition by looking into the text. Over time, under the influence of the teacher, students become convinced of the need for reproduction. Younger students begin to use reproduction when memorizing. In this case, most often they reproduce based on the text. They resort to recollection less often, since it is associated with tension. With age, children, when reproducing educational material, intensify its mental processing in terms of systematization and generalization. As a result, they reproduce educational material more freely and coherently. Features of forgetting younger students. The process of forgetting depends on how children remember what techniques they use. Throughout the entire primary school age, students need their memorization work to be directed by the teacher, since they themselves still find it difficult to set themselves a specific, specific task: to remember exactly or remember to convey in their own words, etc. Some features memory of younger students. Initially, younger students better remember visual material: objects that surround the child and with which he acts, images of objects, people. The productivity of memorizing such material is much higher than memorizing verbal material.
Perception
The development of arbitrariness of perception. Although elements of arbitrariness in perception are also present in a child of preschool age, the perception of a younger student is initially involuntary. Students do not yet know how to control their perception, they cannot independently analyze this or that object, this or that visual aid. So, when looking at a picture, when reading a text, they jump from one part to another, from one construction site to another, they skip words and details. The perception of a younger student is determined, first of all, by the characteristics of the subject itself. Therefore, children notice in objects not the main, important, essential, but what stands out clearly against the background of other objects (color, size, shape, etc.). The process of perception is often limited only to recognition and subsequent naming of an object. At first, students are not capable of careful and detailed examination of the subject. Student perception I-II classes has little differentiation. Quite often, first-graders confuse objects that are similar in one way or another. Gradually, the process of perception undergoes significant changes. Children master the technique of perception, learn to look, listen, highlight the main, essential, see many details in an object; perception becomes dismemberment and turns into a purposeful, controlled, conscious process. The word plays a huge role in the development of arbitrary perception. It directs the actions of perception, guides them, and the child himself can verbally formulate the task of perception. The role of the word in perception is gradually changing. For a first-grader, the word-name, as it were, completes the process of perception (having named the object, the children stop analyzing it further). For students in grades II and III, the word performs a different function. Having named the object, the children continue to verbally describe it. Changes are also taking place in the sense that initially the perception of verbal material, the teacher's verbal instructions need to be visual, to show certain actions. In the future, this is required to a lesser extent. The reasons for the selectivity of perception are also changing. Subjective reasons become more and more important. The process of perception is increasingly determined by the interests, needs and past experience of the student, rather than only the external features of the subject. Features of the perception of form by younger students. For the educational activity of a younger student, it is especially important to develop the perception of such a spatial property as the shape of objects.
Features of the perception of the shape of objects have not yet been studied enough. Compared with a preschooler, the accuracy of discrimination and the correctness of naming increase in a younger student. geometric shapes. This applies primarily to planar figures (square, circle, triangle). At the same time, younger students have difficulty in naming three-dimensional figures. Usually, before school, children know only two shapes: a ball and a cube. Moreover, the cube is not familiar to them as geometric body, but as a building material (cube). Features of the perception of time. The perception of time for younger students presents significant difficulties. Many studies have examined the characteristics of children's perception of short periods of time. Due to the fact that students have not yet developed a time reflex and they do not always correctly estimate time intervals, it is difficult to expect from a younger student that, for example, he will come from the street at exactly the specified time (in 15 or 30 minutes). Younger students better perceive the small periods of time they deal with in life: an hour, a day, a week, a month. Knowledge about large time intervals is very inaccurate.
Development of thinking of younger students
In the development of thinking junior schoolchildrenpsychologists distinguish two main stages.
At the first stage (grades I-II), their thinking is in many ways similar to the thinking of preschoolers: the analysis of educational material is carried out mainly in visual-effective And pictorial plan. Children judge objects and phenomena by their external individual features, one-sidedly, superficially. Their conclusions are based on visual premises given in perception, and conclusions are drawn not on the basis of logical arguments, but by direct correlation of judgment with perceived information. Generalizations and concepts of this stage strongly depend on the external characteristics of objects and fix those properties that lie on the surface.
For example, the same preposition "on" is distinguished by second-graders more successfully in cases where its meaning specifically(expresses the relationship between visual objects - "apples on thetable") than when its meaning is more abstract ("one of these days", "for memory"). That is why the principle of visibility is so important in elementary school. Giving children the opportunity to expand the scope of concrete manifestations of concepts, the teacher makes it easier to highlight the essential general and designate it as appropriate In a word, the main criterion for a full-fledged generalization is the ability of the child to give his own example, corresponding to the knowledge gained.
By the third grade, thinking passes into a qualitatively new, second stage, requiring the teacher to demonstrate the connections that exist between the individual elements of the information being assimilated. By the third grade, children master the genus-species relationships between individual features of concepts, i.e. classification, formed analytical-synthetictype of activity, mastered action simulation. This means that it begins to form formal logical thinking.
In primary school great attention given to the formation scientific concepts. Allocate subject concepts(knowledge of general and essential features and properties of objects - birds, animals, fruits, furnitureetc.) and relationship concepts(knowledge reflecting the connections and relationships of objective things and phenomena - magnitude, evolution etc.).
For the first, several stages of assimilation are distinguished: 1) selection functional features items, i.e. related to their purpose (cow - milk); 2) enumeration of known properties without highlighting essential and non-essential (cucumber-fruit, grows in the garden, green, tasty, with seeds, etc.); 3) highlighting common, essential features in a class of single objects (fruits, trees, animals).
For the latter, several stages of development are also singled out: 1) consideration of specific individual cases of the expression of these concepts (one more than the other); 2) a generalization relating to known, encountered cases and not extended to new cases; 3) a broad generalization applicable to any cases.
The development of thinking largely depends on the level of development mental processes.So, for example, the development analysisgoes from the practically effective to the sensual and further to the mental (from class I to class III). In addition, the analysis begins as a partial and gradually becomes complex and systemic. Synthesisdevelops from simple, summarizing to broader and more complex. Analysis for younger students is an easier process and develops faster than synthesis, although both processes are closely related (the deeper the analysis, the more complete the synthesis). Comparisonat primary school age it goes from non-systematic, focused on external signs, to planned, systematic. When comparing familiar objects, children more easily notice similarities, and when comparing new ones, differences.
It should be noted that younger students begin to realize their own thought processes and try to manage them, although not always successfully.
IN last years more and more talk about the formation in primary school age theoreticalthinking based empirical.theoretical thinking is determined through a set of its properties (reflection; analysis of the content of the task with the allocation of a general way to solve it, which is transferred "from the spot" to a whole class of tasks; an internal plan of action that ensures planning and execution of them in the mind). empirical thinking is carried out by comparing outwardly similar, common features of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world, by "trial and error". Research in experimental classes under the guidance of V. V. Davydov showed that elements of theoretical thinking can be formed in the lower grades.
Imagination
The main direction in the development of children's imagination is the transition to an increasingly correct and complete reflection of reality on the basis of relevant knowledge. With age, the realism of children's imagination increases. This is due to the accumulation of knowledge and the development of critical thinking. The imagination of a junior schoolchild at first is characterized by a slight processing of existing ideas. Thus, in play, children depict what they have seen and experienced almost in the order in which they took place in life. In the future, creative processing of ideas appears. A characteristic feature of the imagination ml. shk-ka yavl. its reliance on specific subjects. Without this, the student cannot imagine, recreate the described situation. Gradually, reliance begins not on an object or action, but on a word, which makes it possible to mentally create a new image. Significant changes are taking place in the very images of imagination created by younger students. So, initially, the images of objects and people are distinguished by poverty and indivisibility: two or three parts, two or three details (for example, the head, torso and legs of a person). Gradually, the images become fuller, the number of details increases. Drawings of first graders, as well as preschoolers, can be called descriptive drawings. They improve the image by drawing and adding. In order for the drawing to be similar to the depicted object, children simply increase the number of details, and do not look for similarities between the image and the object through establishing links between the details. This is due to the peculiarities of the mental activity of first-graders, the relationship between perception and thinking that exists at this age. For them, elemental analysis is predominant, and synthesis generally lags behind analysis. Because of this, they do not yet set themselves the task of establishing the relationship between the parts, the features of the perceived object, and, consequently, the recreated image. In order for students to include the necessary Attributes of objects in the recreated image and reflect their relationship in this image, it is necessary to make this a special learning task. The omission of signs, parts, details of objects leads to the fact that the recreated images are fragmentary, especially for first-graders. Recreation of a holistic, correct image is mainly characteristic of schoolchildren of grade III, but this does not mean that students of grades I-II, with systematic training, cannot recreate correct, holistic images. The integrity of the image depends not only (and not so much) on the number of features reflected, but primarily on their compositional arrangement. Along with the development of integrity, the images of the younger student's imagination become more and more differentiated. The images of first-graders are vague. In the created image, they bring not only what is in the text, but also a lot of superfluous. In the images created by first-graders, the involuntariness, uncontrollability of their mental activity, and weakness of thinking are extremely clearly manifested. As a result of the constant work of the teacher, the development of the imagination begins to go in the following directions.
At first, the image of the imagination is vague, unclear, then it becomes more accurate and definite.
At first, only a few signs are reflected in the image, and by the second or third classes there are much more, and significant ones.
The processing of images, accumulated ideas in the first grade is insignificant, and by the third grade the student acquires much more knowledge and the image becomes more generalized and brighter. Children can change storyline story, introduce convention, understanding its essence.
At first, any image of the imagination requires reliance on a specific object (when reading and telling, for example, reliance on a picture), and then reliance on a word develops. It is this that allows the student to create a mentally new image (children write essays based on the teacher's story, according to what they read in the book).
In the process of learning, with the general development of the ability to control one's mental activity, the imagination also becomes an increasingly controlled process, and its images arise in line with the tasks that the content of educational activity sets before them.
Highlighting characteristics children of a given age, we must at the same time note that children are different. In fact, it is impossible to find two completely identical students in a class.
Learners differ from each other not only different levels readiness to acquire knowledge. Each of them has more stable individual characteristics that cannot (and should not) be eliminated with all the efforts of the teacher. At the same time, these individual characteristics impose their own requirements on the organization of the educational process. First of all, people are born into the world with different types of nervous system, which give different types of temperaments: sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic, melancholic. We cannot say that some of these types are good and others are bad. That's not the point: they are different. One is good in one respect, the other in another.
Temperamentby itself does not determine either the abilities or the character of a person. So, for example, sanguine people are quick to react, and phlegmatic people are characterized by slowness, it is difficult for them to switch from one thing to another, while sanguine people do it easily. Cholerics are capable of long-term active work, but it is difficult for them to slow down and restrain themselves. Melancholics are characterized by fatigue, although, in turn, they have a number of other positive qualities. Already these characteristics show that people with different temperaments need a different pace and a different mode of work. Observations show that teachers tend to set the pace according to their temperament. We have seen a mathematics teacher with a typical sanguine temperament. She constantly pushed the students, demanded that they complete the tasks quickly. At the same time, a pace was set that was clearly beyond the strength of many students, and not in terms of the level of knowledge, but precisely in terms of the properties of temperament. And such students, embarking on a responsible control work, already knew in advance that they would not be able to cope with all the tasks, because they were given too high a pace of work. When we talked with such students, we invariably found them to feel resentful: they felt that they were being treated unfairly.
Individual differences apply to cognitive spherepeople: some have visual type of memory, other - auditory, third - visual-motoretc. Some visual-figurative thinking, and for others - abstract-logical. This means that it is easier for some to perceive the material with the help of sight, for others - by ear; some require a specific representation of the material, while others require a schematic, and so on. Neglecting the individual characteristics of students in teaching leads to the emergence of various kinds of difficulties for them, complicates the way to achieve their goals.
Realizing that with the usual methods of organizing the educational process, the individualization of educational work is very difficult, we consider it important to raise these questions: the teacher must see how great the reserves in the educational process are, which are still not used. At the same time, it should be noted that these reserves cannot be fully utilized without relying on the achievements of modern technology.
The Needs of the Primary Student
Orientation personality ml. Shk-ka is expressed in his needs and motives. At ml. school has a number of needs that were also characteristic of a preschooler. He still has a strong need for play activities, but the content of the game is changing. ml. shk-k continues to play school, teacher. But now, while playing, he can spend hours writing, solving, reading, drawing, singing, etc. It is important to take this into account when organizing educational activities, sometimes turning it into an exciting game process in form. Like a preschooler, Jr. school strong need for movement. He cannot sit still for a long time in class. This need is especially evident in change. That is why it is necessary to give children the opportunity to move more. Same for ml. Shk-ka is very characteristic need for external impressions. Subsequently, it is transformed into cognitive needs. A first grader is primarily attracted by the external side of objects, phenomena, events. For example, he strives with great desire to fulfill various public assignments. But so far, interest in them is only external: to a sanitary bag, for example, to a bandage with a red cross, etc. When completing assignments, the student shows maximum activity until the feeling of novelty disappears. From the first days of schooling, the child has new needs: to accurately fulfill the requirements of the teacher, to successfully acquire new knowledge, skills, abilities, to come to school with completed assignments; the need for a good mark, for the approval and control of his actions by adults, especially the teacher; the need to be the best, favorite student and many others. Development of the needs of the younger student.The need for external impressions as the main driving force in the development of the psyche ml. school at the beginning of training is satisfied primarily by the teacher. He introduces the child to a new field of activity and helps him to comprehend new impressions, to understand them. In the early days, the teacher introduces students to all the features of school life. Under the influence of the teacher, students have a need to acquire the necessary skills and abilities (read, count, draw, tell, etc.) and, finally, the need for new knowledge. It is impossible to establish a strict order of occurrence of these needs. Gradually, the cognitive needs of ml. shk-ka undergo significant changes. Some of them turn into stable personality traits, motives for her behavior, while others disappear. Development needs ml. shk-ka goes in the direction of the dominance of spiritual needs over the material. The needs of the junior school vary not only in content, but also in direction. For example, if at first a junior student, as a rule, "buys" everything only for himself, then over time he begins to "buy" for loved ones (for mom, dad, brother), and then for other people. Development needs ml. shk-ka also goes in the direction of their increasing awareness and self-governance. Children analyze their actions, explain them, and, no less important, get used to analyzing the statements of their elders.
Great influence on the development needs of ml. Shk-ka renders his activity in a team of peers. At the beginning of training, the kid is guided solely by the requirements of the teacher, the opinion of his classmates has almost no meaning for him. Over time, the opinion of comrades, the desire to win their respect, begins to play an increasingly important role in the behavior and activities of the child. Gradually, the child also has a need for self-esteem: he begins to be guided in his behavior not only by the assessment of adults, but also by his own.
A certain level of development of self-awareness at preschool age is one of the indicators of a child's readiness for schooling. The preschooler does not realize himself as isolated, but as being in the system of human relations, i.e. he experiences himself as a social being. This level of development of self-consciousness is directly related to the emergence of a special personality neoplasm - the inner position of a schoolchild (L. I. Bozhovich). The striving for the position of a schoolchild characterizes the personality of the child as a whole, determining his behavior, activities and the system of relations to reality and to himself.
On the threshold of school life, a preschooler has a desire to satisfy his increased needs not in a playful, imaginary, but in a real way. Such a real plan for him is schooling.
Features of the relationship ml. shk-ka in a cool team
Teacher and personal relationships of children.With the arrival at school, there is a decrease in collective ties and relationships between children compared to preparatory group kindergarten. This is due to the novelty of the team and new educational activities for the child. Relationships in the first year of study are largely determined by the teacher through the organization of children's educational activities. The teacher praises the student for success and asks the class to pay attention to a correctly and accurately completed task, or blames someone for inattention and mistakes. In both cases, its estimate is taken as main characteristic personal qualities comrade. In the same case, when the teacher pays more attention to the assessment of the moral qualities of schoolchildren in various life situations, in various activities, the children do not remain indifferent to such an assessment, they try to imitate the good, condemn the bad. The very process of learning at school is organized as an individual, therefore, effective interdependent connections and relationships are formed not only in the process of educational activity, but also outside it. The teacher gives students individual and group public assignments. Gradually, a cool asset stands out. This process is complex and controversial. Very often, active children take the initiative in public life, but the motive of their activity is the desire to show themselves, to stand out, so the teacher needs to include a wide variety of children in public life so that all students would be in the asset of the class.
Formation of collective bonds and interpersonal relationships.In the second and third years of study, both the attitude towards the personality of the teacher and the relationships in the team change. The fact is that the difficult period of the child's acquaintance with the school is over. The personality of the teacher becomes somewhat less significant, but contacts with classmates have become closer. Public activity forms a team, unites it with common goals and interests. A friendly, purposeful team has a huge impact on the development and formation of a person. Gradually, in the class team, directly emotional ties and relationships begin to be reinforced by a moral assessment of the behavior of each of the children. Pupils become more and more aware of certain qualities of a person.
Emotional sphere of junior schoolchildren. general characteristics emotional sphere
In the process of learning, the content of the feelings of the younger student changes and their further development in terms of increasing awareness, restraint, stability. With the arrival of a child in school, his feelings and emotions begin to determine not so much the game and communication with children in the process of playing activity, but the process and result of his educational activity, the need that he satisfies in it, and first of all, the teacher's assessment of his successes and failures. , the marked mark and the attitude of others associated with it. True, there are sometimes cases of children's indifferent attitude to learning, when the assessment does not cause feelings, which does not contribute to the formation of a positive motivation for learning. However, in his free time, the younger student plays with pleasure. Educational activity stimulates the manifestation of interest in games that require ingenuity, elements of competition. These are games with rules, board games, sports. Positive feelings now arise from the solution of an intellectual game task and in the process of the sport of active rivalry. Thus, both the content of the games and the feelings expressed in them change. Feelings appear in the process of labor activity. They are primarily associated with the assimilation of generalized methods of action in labor lessons. At the same time, the possibilities of understanding ml. Shk-kom of their feelings and understanding of other people's feelings are limited. Moral feelings and their development.In ml. school age in progress learning is coming the development of such moral feelings as love for the Motherland, collectivism, a sense of camaraderie, friendship, duty, honor. Awareness of moral feelings for grade 3 is manifested in the fact that children choose a friend, comrade not for random external circumstances, but motivate their choice, characterizing the moral traits that contributed to rapprochement with a classmate. Undoubtedly, the student's understanding and disclosure of one or another moral concept (comrade, friend, patriot, etc.) does not always speak of the manifestation of the feeling itself. Awareness and effectiveness of moral feelings is manifested and formed in actions. The development of moral feelings, their awareness is facilitated by life in a team that combines educational activities, the personality of the teacher himself. The love and devotion of students often become for teachers the motivating motive of their pedagogical activity in primary school, an incentive for professional development. Under the influence of the teacher in joint educational, labor and play activities, students develop the ability to empathize. But the teacher must remember that it is not enough to arouse pity, sympathy, sympathy in the child; it is necessary that these feelings influence the actions and behavior of the child and become one of the links in his moral experience. Along with the feeling of camaraderie, the feeling of collectivism also develops. A sense of responsibility for the success of his team gives rise to a desire to help those who are lagging behind, and the motives are already so strong and effective that the student overcomes considerable obstacles to achieve the intended goal: both the laziness of the ward, and often the discontent of his parents. Collectivism as a character trait is formed gradually in a child. In the process of collective work, children are convinced that it is better to do any business together. In general, three levels of development of moral feelings of younger schoolchildren were revealed. Children with a high level of development of moral feelings are characterized by the stability and effectiveness of such qualities as sensitivity, responsibility, responsiveness, kindness. In schoolchildren with an average level of development of moral feelings, these same qualities are manifested only in relation to friends. Children with a low level of development of such feelings, and studies have shown that this is a significant group of students, rarely show these qualities in relationships with peers.
Features of the will of the younger student. Features of volitional actions of a younger student
As you know, the will manifests itself in the ability to perform actions or restrain them, overcoming external or internal obstacles. In ml. school At the age of volitional acts, feelings play an important role, which often become motives for behavior. The development of will and feelings at this stage takes place in constant interaction. In some cases, feelings contribute to the development of the will, in others they hinder. Thus, the rapid development of moral feelings under the influence of the school team becomes the motive for the volitional actions of students by the third grade. At first, these emotional urges are determined by personal motives. By grade III, feelings become more social. With admission to school, a large number of various strong irritants act on the child. In the process of learning activity, he must be able to concentrate and, under the guidance of a teacher, consciously choose the main essential for his activity. At the same time, the availability of goals is very important for a younger student. The solvability of a problem is often determined not only by the extent to which he owns the means to solve it, but also by the extent to which he sees the goal. Therefore, the child is not indifferent to where the beginning and end of the task. Another condition for the manifestation by students of organization, perseverance and other volitional qualities is such an organization of activity in which the child achieves everything by his own efforts. In this regard, the teacher's methodically thought-out instructions both during class work and during assignments are of great importance. The teacher must teach the sequence and purposefulness of actions, that is, create the prerequisites for the development of the will. The education of the corresponding needs, interests, motives, i.e., the formation of the personality of the student, and, accordingly, his volitional qualities, is the main task of the teacher from the first steps of teaching the child at school. The volitional qualities of a person are the core side of a person's character, and serious attention should be paid to their upbringing. In educational activities and in a team of peers, ml. first of all, such strong-willed character traits as independence, self-confidence, perseverance, and endurance are formed.
Independence.A very important volitional quality necessary for educational activities is independence. The smaller the students, the weaker their ability to act independently. They are not able to control themselves, so they imitate others. In some cases, the lack of independence and criticality leads to increased suggestibility: children imitate both good and bad. Therefore, it is very important that the examples of the behavior of the teacher and those around him be positive.
ml. The student is very trustworthy. He trusts the teacher without limit. Such trust must be justified; the teacher must be exceptionally demanding of himself. The leading role in shaping the correct behavior of schoolchildren belongs to adults (teacher, parents, older comrades). However, this leadership should not infringe on the independence of children, because excessive guardianship, doing work for them, prompting questions and other similar actions of the elders form the features of passivity in the younger student. The teacher has great opportunities for developing the independence of students in the classroom and in extracurricular work. Public assignments, helping comrades, October and pioneer affairs - all this should be organized so as not to replace the initiative of the children, but to give schoolchildren the opportunity to show their resourcefulness, independence.
Restraint.Another important volitional quality of a junior schoolchild is restraint. This feature first manifests itself in the ability to obey the requirements of adults, over time, kids break the rules of behavior more often because they do not know how to restrain themselves and do not have the appropriate habits. Later, the younger student develops the ability to restrain himself, obey the school life and routine after school, organize homework and his leisure time. This is strongly required of the student by the entire school life. Restraint, as a character trait, appears precisely at primary school age and quickly is fixed. Many students can already prepare their own lessons, holding back the desire to take a walk, play, read, without being distracted, without doing other things. It happens that a younger student has a negative character trait opposite to restraint - impulsiveness. impulsiveness as a result heightened emotionality at this age, it manifests itself in a quick distraction of attention to bright, unexpected stimuli, to everything that captures the child with its novelty.
Perseverance and stubbornnessA trait of character, especially found in grade II. Thanks to it, students achieve significant success. stubbornness, manifested at this age, is directed (as opposed to perseverance) to the satisfaction of personal interests. Younger students in most cases are aware of this trait as a negative one, believing that they are persevering. Sometimes stubbornness is the result of a conflict situation between an adult and a child, for example, if the latter believes that the teacher is unfair in assessing knowledge. Most often this happens when the teacher does not motivate his assessment or, constantly blaming the student, does not notice his efforts, does not encourage him. In this case, stubbornness arises as a protest and manifests itself, for example, in unwillingness to answer a lesson or obey other requirements of the teacher. A similar situation can develop in the seed environment. In the process of learning and development, the volitional qualities of ml. students are improving. Children begin to show purposefulness, determination, perseverance, endurance, courage, discipline. The school forms the communist orientation of the will, educates the ability to combine personal interests with public ones and, if necessary, to subordinate the personal to the public, collective. The communist-directed will helps the student to achieve socially useful goals, strengthens the sense of duty, develops purposefulness, perseverance, and helps to overcome any difficulties.
1. Development of arbitrariness of the processes of perception, attention, memory. Memory acquires a pronounced cognitive character, since mental operations now have a goal, and memorization processes are also purposeful. There is an intensive formation of memorization techniques. It occurs before from involuntary memorization of a preschooler to arbitrary memorization of a schoolchild, purposeful observation of an object. The ability to focus on uninteresting things is formed.
2. Development of mental operations of analysis, synthesis, generalization, comparison, classification, etc. This is the age of active intellectual development. The intellect mediates the development of all other functions, there is an intellectualization of all mental processes, their awareness.
3. Awareness of one's own development, one's own changes as a result of learning activities.
Consciousness of teaching is characterized by awareness of responsibility for educational achievements, activity and independence in the assimilation and application of knowledge, mastering the methods of mental activity, which ensures self-management of educational activities. Leontiev divided actions into actually realized, “automated”, or consciously controlled, and actions that are only in the field of perception. For example, walking down the street with a friend and talking about something, the environment will be perceived, your movement relative to external objects will be consciously controlled, and the meaning of the interlocutor's words will be actually realized. It is very important to understand the difference between an action that is actually conscious and one that is only under conscious control. At first glance, these concepts are similar to each other or even coincide, but Leontiev gives the following example: “Let's assume that a child is studying and in the process of learning performs one of the well-known exercises on spelling a capital letter in proper names, which consists in the following: in the textbook of the text, you need to separately write out the names of cows and separately - the names of dogs. In this case, his actions should be aimed at deciding whether the next nickname that he reads is more suitable for cows or it is more suitable for dogs. This becomes the subject of his actual consciousness. Here again, the content actually recognized by the child does not coincide with what is subject to conscious assimilation: after all, it is not necessary to learn the difference between, so to speak, "typically cow" and "typically dog" nicknames, but the fact that proper names, in particular the nicknames of animals (and at the same time exactly the same, whether it is the name of dogs or cows), are written with a capital letter. Another thing is when a child must, for example, in an exercise write out words that are capitalized; in this case, his inner action will be directed towards distinguishing these words, guided by the rule communicated to him. Accordingly, the actual subject of his consciousness will be in this case precisely spelling of proper names»
In addition, there may be a discrepancy in learning between the requirement to comprehend the material, on the one hand, and its awareness by the child, on the other. Using the same spelling rules as an example, we will give the child an exercise to learn the spelling of words with unchecked vowels. To do this, he must read the riddle, draw an answer, and then sign the text of the riddle under his drawing. This exercise is designed to ensure the consciousness of cheating, and it really cannot be done "mechanically". To draw a riddle, the child must necessarily be aware of the text of the riddle. Consequently, the child, signing the riddle under his drawing, writes off the text, the content of which he is fully aware of in advance. Let us approach, however, the example under consideration from the other side and put the question as follows: for what given this exercise? Of course, it is not given in order to teach the child to understand riddles. His direct task is the conscious assimilation of orthograms. But what necessary does the child become aware of when doing this exercise, i.e. what does it guarantee awareness of? Obviously, consciousness thoughts expressed in the text of the riddle. Consciousness spelling sides of the text in this exercise is just not provided with anything. After all, the only word in relation to which a question about its spelling could arise in the mind of a child is a guess word, but it is precisely this word that the child should not write, but depict with the help of a drawing, and it is not in it that the studied spelling. The text of the riddle itself, which contains the spelling being studied, the child can rewrite completely "mechanically", that is, without being aware of its spelling side. It turns out, therefore, that the material of this exercise is indeed always recognized, but only the child recognizes in it something completely different from what is required for the conscious mastery of precisely spelling. In this case, as in many others, we are dealing with the discrepancy that the child must be aware of the educational material in accordance with a certain specific pedagogical task, and what is real object of his consciousness.
The problem of the consciousness of the teaching acts as a problem of the meaning that the knowledge he acquires has for the child. The way I am aware of something meaning has for me what I am conscious of - is determined by the motive of the activity in which a particular action is included. That is, how knowledge is assimilated and what it will become for the child is determined by the specific motives that prompted him to learn.
Motives can be divided into two large groups:
1. The motives inherent in the educational activity itself:
Motives related to the content of the teaching (the desire to learn new things, master certain skills, methods of action, etc.)
Motives related to the learning process (like the learning process itself, interaction with the teacher and peers, etc.)
2. Indirect motives:
Social motives associated with the concept of duty, honor, etc.
Motives for self-improvement, self-determination
Motives for Avoiding Trouble
True, it should be taken into account that there are so many people, so many motives, so many different goals, but in general the structure is as follows. It is clear that the success of mastering knowledge and the degree of their awareness will be different in each case: whether the child will learn a lesson so that his parents will soon let him go for a walk in order to get a good grade or because he likes the content of the subject itself.
The principle of conscientiousness of learning requires the child to understand the need for his teaching in the future life, but understanding alone is not enough. Thus, the cognitive content of consciousness depends on the attitude to the cognizable, on the motive that prompts cognition. In this regard, Leontiev spoke of the need education motives of students, the importance of forming the right attitude to learning, the need for such an organization of the educational process in which students would not only be interested in the content of the subject, but also motivated to master it. He brought an interesting experiment in the house of pioneers, in a circle of aircraft designers. More than half of the children enthusiastically collecting model airplanes were not at all interested in theory - why an airplane flies, and this is fundamental knowledge. No calls to start studying these things have had any effect. Then the experimenters came up with the idea of giving the beginners a new task, it was necessary not only to construct a model, but also to make it fly a certain distance. From this point of view, it is no longer possible to do without theory, and what previously did not carry any specific meaning for a child is now of paramount importance - in order to make a model fly, one already has to rummage through the literature, communicate with an instructor, etc.
Leontiev said that only that which is the goal of activity is actually realized. Having thus changed the role of theoretical knowledge in the overall structure of activities, he attracted the interest of children in fundamental knowledge. All training should also be built.
In psychology and pedagogy, there is such a thing as the psychological readiness of the child for school. This readiness requires from the child a certain level of development, a certain ability to control himself, his behavior, a certain level of development of mental functions, the presence of certain skills to interact with adults and peers, and, of course, a certain level of self-awareness. At school, all these skills of self-control, self-awareness continue to develop and become more complex. At the age of one, the child begins to separate himself from the objects of the outside world, at three - his objective actions from the objective actions of an adult - at the level of primary school age - with the help of an adult, he evaluates his mental qualities - thinking, memory, imagination. Thus, conscious learning, which is based on the mastery of educational activities, contributes to the formation of consciousness, self-esteem of the student, the development of volitional qualities, self-control skills, the organization of mental work, the development of cognitive processes, etc.
156. Education during adolescence.
Studying at school or college occupies a large place in the life of a teenager. To a teenager become attractive independent forms classes. The teenager is impressed, and it is easier for him to master the methods of action when the teacher only helps him.
Of course, interest in a subject is largely related to the quality of teaching. Of great importance is the presentation of the material by the teacher, the ability to explain the material in a fascinating and intelligible way, which activates interest, enhances the motivation for learning. Gradually, based on the cognitive need, stable cognitive interests are formed, leading to a positive attitude towards academic subjects generally.
At this age there are new motives for teaching associated with the awareness of life prospects, one's place in the future, professional intentions, ideal. Knowledge is of particular importance for the development of the personality of a teenager. They are the value that provides the teenager with the expansion of his own consciousness and a significant place among his peers. It is in adolescence that special efforts are made to expand everyday, artistic and scientific knowledge. Teenager greedily assimilates worldly experience important people which gives him the opportunity to navigate in everyday life.
Orientation to work and socially useful activity. In orientation towards work, in the formation of interests, inclinations and abilities in adolescents, an active test of various fields labor activity. At the same time, orientations are largely determined by the possibility of personal self-affirmation and self-improvement. In our time, a teenager has received a new motivation to participate in work activities - this is an opportunity to earn money. However, it is in adolescence that many adolescents feel the need for professional self-determination, which is associated with the general tendency of this age to find their place in life. A teenager begins to look at the variety of professions with growing interest. Making a preliminary choice, he evaluates different types of activity in terms of his interests and inclinations, as well as in terms of social value orientations.
Social pedagogy considers the process of education, the sociology of personality in theoretical and applied aspects. It considers deviations or conformities of human behavior under the influence of the environment, what is commonly referred to as the socialization of the individual. According to scientists, social pedagogy is “a branch of pedagogy that considers the social education of all age groups and social categories of people, in organizations specially created for this”
Social pedagogy is the basis for the branches of pedagogy, which represent the branches of social pedagogy.
The neoplasms of primary school age include memory, perception, will, and thinking.
Memory. At this age, great changes occur in the cognitive sphere of the child. Memory acquires a pronounced cognitive character. Mechanical memory develops well, indirect and logical memory lags behind in its development. This is due to the fact that these types of memory in educational, labor, play activities are not in demand and the child has enough mechanical memory. There is an intensive formation of memorization techniques: from the most primitive (repetition, careful long consideration of the material) to grouping and comprehending the connections of different parts of the material.
Perception. There is a transition from involuntary perception to purposeful arbitrary observation of an object or object. At the beginning of this period, perception is not yet differentiated, so the child sometimes confuses letters and numbers that are similar in spelling.
If at the initial stage of education, the child is dominated by analyzing perception, then by the end of primary school age, synthesizing perception develops. He can establish connections between the elements of the perceived. This is clearly seen in the following example. When children were asked to tell what was drawn in the picture, children from 2 to 5 years old listed the objects depicted in it, from 6 to 9 years old - described the picture, and a child over 9 years old gave his interpretation of what he saw.
Will. Educational activity contributes to the development of the will, since learning always requires internal discipline. The child begins to develop the ability to self-organize, he masters planning techniques, self-control and self-esteem increase. The ability to focus on uninteresting things is formed.
Significant changes at this age occur in the area thinking. The cognitive activity of a child of primary school age is very high. This is expressed in the fact that he asks many questions and is interested in everything: how deep is the ocean, how do animals breathe there, etc.
The child seeks knowledge. He learns to operate with them, imagine situations and, if necessary, tries to find a way out of a particular situation. The child can already imagine the situation and act in it in his imagination. This kind of thinking is called visual-figurative. This is the main type of thinking at this age. A child can also think logically, but since learning in the lower grades is successful only on the basis of the principle of visibility, this kind of thinking is still necessary.
At the beginning of primary school age, thinking is different egocentrism- a special mental position, due to the lack of knowledge necessary for the correct definition of some problematic points.
The learning process in the lower grades is aimed at active development verbal-logical thinking. The first two years in the learning process are dominated by visual samples of educational material, but gradually their use is reduced. Thus, visual-figurative thinking is replaced by verbal-logical thinking.
Already at the end of primary school age (and later), individual differences between children appear: some are “theorists” or “thinkers” who easily solve problems verbally; others are “practitioners”, they need reliance on visibility and practical actions; the "artists" have a well-developed figurative thinking. In many children, these types of thinking are developed in the same way.
Begins to develop in early childhood theoretical thinking leading to the restructuring of all mental processes, and, as D.B. Elkonin: “memory becomes thinking, and perception becomes thinking”. An important condition for the development of theoretical thinking is the formation of scientific concepts and their application in practice. This can be illustrated by the following example. Children of preschool and school age were asked the question: "What is a fetus?" Preschoolers said that this is what they eat and what grows, and schoolchildren answered that the fruit is the part of the plant that contains the seed.
Theoretical thinking allows solving problems based on internal features, essential properties and relationships. The development of theoretical thinking depends on the type of education, that is, on how and what the child is taught.
V.V. Davydov in the book "Types of generalization in teaching" (M., 1972) gave comparative characteristic empirical and theoretical thinking. He showed that the development of theoretical thinking requires a new logic of content. learning processes, since the theoretical generalization does not develop in the depths of the empirical (Table 8)
At this age, great changes occur in the cognitive sphere of the child. Memory acquires a pronounced cognitive character. Changes in the field of memory are connected with the fact that the child, firstly, begins to realize a special mnemonic task. He separates this task from every other. At preschool age, this task is either not emphasized at all, or allocated with great difficulty. Secondly, at primary school age there is an intensive formation of memorization techniques. From the most primitive methods of memorization (repetition, careful long-term consideration of the material), the child at an older age moves on to focusing, comprehending the connections of different parts of the material. According to L.S. Vygotsky, a preschooler thinks while remembering, while a schoolchild remembers while thinking. Unfortunately, little is taught in school about memorization techniques.
In the region of perception there is a transition from the involuntary perception of a preschool child to purposeful voluntary observation of an object that is subject to a specific task. Young teachers often underestimate the difficulties that a child experiences when perceiving a new object. It is necessary to teach children to consider an object, it is necessary to guide perception. For this n it is necessary to create a preliminary idea in the child, a preliminary search image so that he can see what he needs. Examples of this are simple, they have been developed over thousands of years: it is necessary to lead the child's gaze with a pointer. It is not enough to have visual material, you need to teach to see this material. During the early school years, children learn to look at objects; without this, intellectual changes cannot occur.
Educational activity makes very great demands on other aspects of the child's psyche. It contributes to the development will. In preschool age, arbitrariness appears only in individual cases. At school, all activities are arbitrary in nature. Any attempt to turn learning into entertainment is false. Teaching always requires a certain inner discipline. K.D. Ushinsky pointed out the danger of entertaining pedagogy. The school creates close goals - this is the assessment of knowledge; but the main meaning of the teaching - preparation for future activity - requires a high degree of arbitrariness.
At this age, the ability to concentrate Attention on unimportant things. emotional experiences become more generalized.
The most significant changes can be observed in the area thinking, which becomes abstract and generalized. The performance of intellectual operations by young schoolchildren is associated with difficulties. Here are some examples of reliable facts described by different psychologists.
1. For a child, it is very difficult to analyze the sound composition of a word and the analysis of words in a sentence. The child is asked how many words are in the sentence: "Vanya and Petya went for a walk", the child answers: "Two (Vanya and Petya)". A.R. Luria and L.S. Vygotsky noted that speech acts for a child as a glass through which something is visible, but the glass itself (the word) is not visible. The facts are described by S.N. Karpova.
2. Ideas about quantity are saturated with specific content. Children confuse size and quantity. When a younger student is shown 4 small circles and 2 large ones and asked where there are more, the child points to 2 large ones (such facts are described by P.Ya. Galperin, V.V. Davydov and others).
3. Definition of concepts. The child is asked what a fetus is. For young children, it is what they eat and what grows. For a schoolboy, the part of a plant that contains the seed. At first, younger students think in a preschool way, the child proceeds from the direct practical significance of the phenomenon, does not take into account the genesis of this phenomenon, and this is precisely what is decisive for the definition of scientific concepts. At school age, a new type of thinking is formed - theoretical (V.V. Davydov).
Educational activities contribute to the development of the cognitive abilities of the child. In kindergarten, the child's activity is limited to familiarization with the environment, the child will not be given a system of scientific concepts. At school, in a relatively short period of time, he must master the system of scientific concepts - the basis of science. The system of scientific concepts has been created over thousands of years. What mankind has been creating for many centuries, a child must learn in a small number of years. This task is amazingly difficult! The process of assimilation of a system of concepts, a system of sciences, cannot be regarded as a matter of mere memory. The child is required to develop mental operations (analysis, synthesis, reasoning, comparison, etc.). In the process of schooling, not only the assimilation of individual knowledge and skills takes place, but also their generalization and, at the same time, the formation of intellectual operations. The words of L.S. Vygotsky: "Consciousness and arbitrariness enter consciousness through the gates of scientific concepts."
Thus, primary school age is the age of intensive intellectual development. The intellect mediates the development of all other functions, intellectualization of all mental processes, their awareness and arbitrariness take place. Let us recall the parallelogram of the development of memory according to A.N. Leontiev: the higher we climb the ladder of development, the more mediated mental processes become. Arbitrary and intentional memorization arises, the task of arbitrary reproduction is set. Children themselves begin to use the means for memorization. Not only the development of memory, but also the development of all other mental processes at this age is directly dependent on the development of the intellect. As for the intellect itself, at this age, but according to L.S. Vygotsky, we are dealing with the development of the intellect, which does not yet know itself.
So, the main psychological neoplasms of primary school age are as follows:
1) the arbitrariness and awareness of all mental processes and their intellectualization, their internal mediation, which occurs due to the assimilation of a system of scientific concepts - all but the intellect. The intellect does not yet know itself;
2) awareness of their own changes as a result of the development of educational activities.
An analysis of the psychological achievements of a child of primary school age shows particularly convincingly the dependence of his mental development on the content and methods of instruction. If training is built in accordance with the principles of the activity theory of learning, which underlie the system of developmental education by D.B. Elkonina - V.V. Davydov, then by the end of primary school age, the child may have formed:
o educational activity and its subject;
o theoretical thinking, which, in accordance with the theory of V.V. Davydov includes:
All these achievements, and especially the turning of the child into himself ("who was I?" and "who have I become?"), as a result of educational activity, testify to the transition of the child to the next age period, which completes childhood.
