Diseases of civilization

Diseases of civilization - human diseases associated with spiritual ill-being, violation of moral norms and mechanisms of adaptation to adverse factors of an anthropogenically changed environment in the context of the rapid growth of scientific and technological progress.

The agricultural era, for all the severity of peasant labor, was associated with a large amount of proprioceptive information. The beneficial effects of the sun, rain, wind, images and smells of forests, meadows and fields fell on the sense organs from muscle contractions. Life was slow and subject to the rhythms of nature. In the process of development of civilization, the form of organization of human life has changed. Main efforts modern man aimed at liberation from severe physical labor and to the creation of ever more comfortable living conditions and the satisfaction of ever-increasing desires for pleasure.

To achieve this goal, a person went in several ways:

1. He created tools and means of production that made it easier to work and receive life's blessings. The life of modern man began to proceed in conditions of higher comfort. This has led to the fact that in recent decades the volume of motor activity of people of all

ages. The share of physical labor in production decreased from 90% to 10%.

2. Created the food industry. Highly purified and artificially synthesized food products, supplements, etc., began to occupy an increasing place in nutrition. Unlike not so distant ancestors, the food of modern man has become much less diverse in terms of a set of natural products.

3. He began to transform nature, that is, to adapt it to himself, to his needs and comfort. All this led to a change in nature itself, that is, those natural conditions that formed the human body.

Thus, the changed natural environment and living conditions increasingly came into conflict with the adaptation mechanisms that nature itself in its original form created in the process of its development in humans. Naturally, such a confrontation cannot pass without a trace not only for nature, but also for human health. The following main serious contradictions between the evolutionary past of man and his current way of life can be noted:

1. The decrease in the motor activity of a modern person below the level that ensured the survival of the body in evolution has led humanity to total physical inactivity.

2. A dangerous contradiction between the ever-decreasing motor activity and the ever-increasing load on the brain of a modern person is accompanied by an overstrain of the central nervous system, higher nervous activity and psyche.

3. Comfortable conditions of existence with a decrease in the functional capabilities of the body led to the development of detraining of adaptive mechanisms.

4. The increasing importance in the diet of processed foods, which are distinguished by the absence of many natural components and the presence of a large number of non-natural synthesized substances, has led to metabolic disorders.

5. Man's transformation of nature and scientific and technological progress increased the comfort of life, but also gave rise to an ecological crisis. Structural information flow (including chemical contamination of inhaled air, drinking water, food) has undergone the greatest changes and this in a certain way affects human health.

The evolutionist theory speaks of a single historical process on Earth, as a result of which humanity has accumulated vast experience in interacting with nature. But at the present stage of the transition of Western civilization to the post-industrial space, people are faced with a real possibility of self-destruction of mankind, since the transforming power of social production has become comparable in power to natural processes. In this regard, humanity is faced with the need to solve such global problems as the prevention of a world thermonuclear war, the cessation of the arms race, space exploration, health protection and the elimination of the most dangerous diseases, the establishment of the adverse effects of scientific and technological revolution and the ecological crisis. The manifestations of the latter are changes that threaten the natural basis of human life and negatively affect the development of society: the danger of changing the genetic fund, insufficient energy, resource and food security, demographic imbalance, and growing environmental pollution.

Science has not yet revealed all the specifics of the biological foundations of man, but many facts have been accumulated about the heredity and variability of its characteristics. For example, weakening the resistance of the human body to diseases and, as a result, an increase in the number of mutations and genetic defects by 2.5 times over the past 30 years. In connection with such a global complex of negative phenomena, their scale, relevance and dynamism, there is a danger that the ecological crisis will develop into an ecological catastrophe. Today, the population of the planet Earth is given a choice: either a reasonable management of further social progress, or the death of civilization. The problem of choosing a strategy for human activity falls into the category of vital ones.

There is no doubt that medicine has had a special impact on the fate of mankind. Largely due to her merits, the demographic situation has changed significantly. Diseases that caused mass epidemics (plague, smallpox) were defeated. As a result of the discovery of new therapeutic methods, the life expectancy of people has increased significantly. Ways have been found to treat diseases that were previously considered incurable. However, the conquered diseases are being replaced by new ones, more cruel and sophisticated in form, mimicking, seeking to deceive the immune system.

The group of diseases of civilization includes pathologies of the cardiovascular, nervous, immune, digestive, endocrine systems. Of these, cardiovascular, oncological, pulmonary diseases and diabetes mellitus have firmly taken the leading places among the causes of death, disability and temporary disability. What makes these diseases to be singled out in a separate group? Since the beginning of the 20th century, the incidence rate has been growing exponentially. It has been established that the main reason for this growth is stress.

Thus, in our age - the age of abundance of modern achievements and discoveries (splitting of the atom, space flights, genetic modification of the species, cloning, organ transplantation, etc.), mortality from cardiovascular pathology, cancer, neuropsychiatric diseases and injuries. "Diseases of civilization" is the main cause of death of the population at the present time. According to American doctors in the second half and at the end of the twentieth century, 8 diseases are the causes of death of 85% of those who die in middle and old age: obesity, hypertension, atherosclerosis, decreased immunity, autoimmune diseases, mental depression, diabetes and cancer. Many of them are interrelated, such as obesity, atherosclerosis and hypertension, reduced immunity and cancer. These forms of pathology are considered as the most "human", i.e. “nurtured” by man himself in the conditions of civilization.

Definition of diabetes mellitus and history of discovery

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is an important medical and social problem and is among the priorities of national health systems in all countries of the world. According to the WHO expert commission, to date, more than 60 million people in the world suffer from DM, this figure is increasing by 6-10% annually, doubling it should be expected every 10-15 years. In order of importance - this disease is immediately after heart and oncological diseases.

The International Classification of Diseases (ICD 10; 1992) provides the following definition of DM: “A heterogeneous syndrome caused by absolute (type 1 diabetes) or relative (type 2 diabetes) insulin deficiency, which initially causes a violation of carbohydrate metabolism, and then all types of metabolism , which ultimately leads to the defeat of all functional systems of the body.

The first descriptions of this pathological condition singled out, first of all, its most striking symptoms - loss of fluid (polyuria) and unquenchable thirst (polydipsia). The term "diabetes" (lat. diabetes mellitus) was first used by the Greek physician Demetrios from Apamania, comes from other Greek. διαβαίνω, which means "I cross, I cross."

In 1675, Thomas Willis showed that with polyuria (increased urine output), urine can be "sweet" or "tasteless". In the first case, he added to the word diabetes (lat. diabetes) the word mellitus, which means “sweet as honey” in Latin (lat. diabetes mellitus), and in the second - “insipidus”, which means “tasteless”. Tasteless was called diabetes insipidus - a pathology caused either by kidney disease (nephrogenic diabetes insipidus) or pituitary disease and characterized by a violation of the secretion or biological action of antidiuretic hormone.

With the advent of the technical ability to determine the concentration of glucose not only in the urine, but also in the blood serum, it turned out that in most patients, an increase in the level of sugar in the blood at first does not guarantee its detection in the urine. A further increase in the concentration of glucose in the blood exceeds the threshold value for the kidneys (about 10 mmol / l) - glycosuria develops - sugar is also determined in the urine. The explanation for the causes of diabetes mellitus again had to be changed, since it turned out that the mechanism for retaining sugar by the kidneys was not impaired, which means that there was no "sugar incontinence" as such. At the same time, the previous explanation "fit" a new pathological condition, the so-called "renal diabetes" - a decrease in the renal threshold for blood glucose (detection of sugar in the urine with normal blood sugar levels).

So, the "sugar incontinence" paradigm was abandoned in favor of the "high blood sugar" paradigm. This paradigm is today the main and only tool for diagnosing and evaluating the effectiveness of therapy.

Several discoveries led to the emergence of a new paradigm of the causes of diabetes as insulin deficiency. In 1889, Joseph von Mering and Oskar Minkowski showed that a dog develops symptoms of diabetes after pancreasectomy. And in 1910, Sir Edward Albert Sharpay-Schafer suggested that diabetes was caused by a deficiency of a chemical secreted by the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas. He named this substance insulin, from the Latin insula, which means island. The endocrine function of the pancreas and the role of insulin in the development of diabetes were confirmed in 1921 by Frederick Banting and Charles Herbert Best. They repeated the experiments of von Mehring and Minkowski, showing that the symptoms of diabetes in pancreased dogs could be eliminated by injecting them with an extract of the islets of Langerhans from healthy dogs; Banting, Best and their collaborators (especially the chemist Collip) purified insulin isolated from the pancreas of cattle and used it to treat the first patients in 1922. The experiments were carried out at the University of Toronto, laboratory animals and experimental equipment were provided by John McLeod. For this discovery, scientists received the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1923. The production of insulin and its use in the treatment of diabetes began to develop rapidly.

After completing his work on obtaining insulin, John Macleod returned to studies of the regulation of gluconeogenesis, begun in 1908, and in 1932 concluded that the parasympathetic nervous system plays a significant role in the processes of gluconeogenesis in the liver.

However, as soon as a method for studying insulin in the blood was developed, it turned out that in a number of diabetic patients, the concentration of insulin in the blood was not only not reduced, but also significantly increased. In 1936, Sir Harold Percival Himsworth published a paper in which type 1 and type 2 diabetes were first noted as separate diseases. This again changed the paradigm of diabetes, dividing it into two types - with absolute insulin deficiency (type 1) and with relative insulin deficiency (type 2). As a result, diabetes mellitus has become a syndrome that can occur in at least two diseases: type 1 or type 2 diabetes.

Despite the significant achievements of diabetology in recent decades, the diagnosis of the disease is still based on the study of carbohydrate metabolism parameters.

Since November 14, 2006, under the auspices of the UN, World Diabetes Day has been celebrated, November 14 was chosen for this event in recognition of the merits of Frederick Grant Banting in the study of diabetes mellitus.

Insulin, its formation and secretion

Insulin (from Latin insula - island) is a hormone of a peptide nature, formed in the beta cells of the islets of Langerhans of the pancreas. It has a multifaceted effect on the metabolism in almost all tissues. The main action of insulin is to lower the concentration of glucose in the blood. It is a small protein consisting of two polypeptide chains. Chain A contains 21 amino acid residues, chain B - 30 amino acid residues. There are 3 disulfide bridges in insulin, 2 of them connect the A and B chains, 1 S-S bridge connects 6 and 11 cysteine residues in the A chain. Molecular weight 6 kDa.

Figure 1 Structure of human insulin

The pancreas is made up of two types of tissue with completely different functions. Actually, the tissue of the pancreas is made up of small lobules - acini, entirely consisting of cells that secrete pancreatic juice (pancreatic juice, from Latin pancreas - pancreas). Numerous groups of cells are interspersed between the lobules - the so-called islets of Langerhans. Islet cells secrete hormones involved in the regulation of many processes in the body. Thus, the pancreas performs two important functions in the body: exocrine and endocrine. The human pancreas weighs 80 to 90 g.

In the islet of the pancreas, there are 4 types of cells that secrete different hormones:

A- (or α-) cells (10-30%) secrete glucagon;

B- (or β-) cells (60-80%) - insulin and amylin;

D- (or δ-) cells (5-10%) - somatostatin;

F- (or γ-) cells (2-5%) secrete pancreatic polypeptide (PP).

The endocrine tissue of the pancreas - the islets of Langerhans - makes up about 3% of the total mass.

The synthesis and release of insulin is a complex process that includes several steps. Initially, an inactive hormone precursor is formed, which, after a series of chemical transformations, turns into an active form during maturation. Insulin is produced throughout the day, not just at night.

The gene encoding the primary structure of the insulin precursor is located on the short arm of chromosome 11.

On the ribosomes of the rough endoplasmic reticulum, a precursor peptide is synthesized - the so-called. preproinsulin. It is a polypeptide chain built from 110 amino acid residues and includes sequentially located: L-peptide, B-peptide, C-peptide and A-peptide.

Almost immediately after synthesis in the ER, a signal (L) peptide is cleaved from this molecule, a sequence of 24 amino acids that are necessary for the passage of the synthesized molecule through the hydrophobic lipid membrane of the ER. Proinsulin is formed, which is transported to the Golgi complex, then in the cisterns of which the so-called insulin maturation occurs.

Figure 2 Stages of synthesis and post-translational modification of insulin

1 – signal peptide elongation on ER polyribosomes with the formation of preproinsulin; 2 – signal peptide cleavage from preproinsulin; 3 - partial proteolysis of proinsulin with the formation of insulin and C-peptide; 4 - incorporation of insulin and C-peptide into secretory granules; 5 - secretion of insulin and C-peptide from β-cells of the pancreas into the blood.

The beta cells of the islets of Langerhans are sensitive to changes in blood glucose levels; their release of insulin in response to an increase in glucose concentration is realized according to the following mechanism:

Glucose is freely transported to beta cells by a special carrier protein GluT 2.
In the cell, glucose undergoes glycolysis and is further oxidized in the respiratory cycle to form ATP; The intensity of ATP synthesis depends on the level of glucose in the blood.
ATP regulates the closure of potassium ion channels, leading to membrane depolarization.
Depolarization causes the opening of voltage-gated calcium channels, which leads to a current of calcium into the cell.
An increase in the level of calcium in the cell activates phospholipase C, which cleaves one of the membrane phospholipids - phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate - into inositol-1,4,5-triphosphate and diacylglycerate.
Inositol triphosphate binds to ER receptor proteins. This leads to the release of bound intracellular calcium and a sharp increase in its concentration.
A significant increase in the concentration of calcium ions in the cell leads to the release of pre-synthesized insulin stored in secretory granules.

In mature secretory granules, in addition to insulin and C-peptide, there are zinc ions, amylin, and small amounts of proinsulin and intermediate forms.

The release of insulin from the cell occurs by exocytosis - a mature secretory granule approaches the plasma membrane and merges with it, and the contents of the granule are squeezed out of the cell. A change in the physical properties of the medium leads to the elimination of zinc and the breakdown of crystalline inactive insulin into individual molecules that have biological activity.

The main types of diabetes

In 1979, the World Health Organization (WHO) Expert Committee on Diabetes Mellitus proposed a modern classification of diabetic disease.

There are two main forms of diabetes:

Diabetes mellitus of the first type (juvenile) - insulin-dependent;

Diabetes mellitus type II - non-insulin dependent.

1. Type 1 diabetes mellitus (juvenile) - insulin dependent. It is characterized by insulin deficiency resulting from the death of beta cells in the pancreatic islets. With this type of diabetes, almost complete (up to 90%) death of pancreatic cells is observed, as a result of which insulin ceases to be produced. The level of insulin in such patients is either minimal or practically absent. The presumed cause of cell death is a viral or autoimmune (caused by the pathology of immunity - the body's defense system) damage to the pancreas.

With a lack of insulin, glucose does not enter the cells. Fat becomes the main source of energy, and the body consumes its fat reserves. Therefore, patients become very thin. When energy is produced from fat, the liver converts some of the fat into ketone bodies (acetone). There is an accumulation of ketone bodies - ketosis. They begin to be excreted in the urine (can be determined by urine analysis for acetone). Insulin treatment is required.

Insulin-dependent diabetes develops mainly in childhood, adolescence and young age (up to 30 years), but any other age category is not excluded. In childhood, the disease is more severe than at the age of 40 and older. Sometimes it develops in older people. Then the onset of the disease can last a very long time (5-10 years) and, according to external signs, does not differ from type 2 diabetes. In this case, the patient is treated for a long time with tablets, and not with insulin. Later they switch to insulin.

Causes:

1. stress factor;

2. the hereditary factor is one of the most reliable hypotheses that exist today;

3. possible development of diabetes mellitus is promoted by transferred infectious or viral diseases;

4. autoimmune process.

2. Diabetes mellitus of the second type - non-insulin dependent. It occurs much more often (almost four to six times). It develops mainly in adults, usually after 40 years of age, over a much longer period than type 1 diabetes. Usually includes a long pre-diabetic stage. Not accompanied by the accumulation of ketone bodies. In the treatment do not use insulin.

It is characterized by insulin deficiency, insulin resistance of body cells (violation of cell sensitivity to insulin) or a violation of the process of formation and storage of glycogen.

In the case of insulin resistance cells, the pancreas produces insulin, but it does not bind well to the cell receptors. Therefore, glucose does not normally enter the cells. Its concentration in the blood increases. At fat people receptors undergo changes, and insulin is required two to three times more than people with normal weight. Therefore, such type 2 diabetes is presumably associated with malnutrition. In this situation, there is a chance to get rid of the disease if you lose weight.

In type 2 diabetes, it is possible that some of the insulin secreted by beta cells is defective. Such insulin does not promote the conduction of glucose into cells. Normal insulin is also produced, but not enough. Such diabetes cannot be cured by losing weight.

Until recently, type 2 diabetes was thought to only affect humans. middle age. However, recently this disease is “getting younger” and can manifest itself earlier than 30 years. Such diabetes can be considered manifested too early.

During the period when the aging processes are intense, the body withers, the work of the endocrine system is disrupted (70 years or more) - type 2 diabetes can be considered one of the inevitable diseases.

Type 2 diabetes is most common in people who are overweight. However, there is a small percentage of sick people who are not obese (about one in ten patients). Lean diabetics do not experience many of the medical problems (overweight, blood pressure, and high blood fat) that most diabetics do.

Causes:

1. obesity;

2. violation of fat metabolism;

3. past diabetes during pregnancy;

4. the birth of a child with a large body weight;

5. improper nutrition;

6. hypodynamia, leading to overweight;

7. stress;

8. chronic diseases of the pancreas;

9. liver disease;

10. advanced age;

11. heredity.

Diagnosis of diabetes

· All patients over the age of 45 (repeat every 3 years if the test is negative).

· Younger patients in the presence of the listed signs on the screen. And also for screening (centralized and decentralized) DM WHO recommends the determination of glucose and hemoglobin A1c.

Glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c) is hemoglobin in which a glucose molecule condenses to the β-terminal valine of the β-chain

hemoglobin molecules. The content of HbA1c has a direct correlation with the level of glucose in the blood and is an integrated indicator of the compensation of carbohydrate metabolism over the past 60-90 days. The rate of formation of HbA1c depends on the magnitude of hyperglycemia, and the normalization of its level in the blood occurs 4-6 weeks after reaching euglycemia. In this regard, the content of HbA1c is determined in

if it is necessary to control carbohydrate metabolism and confirm its compensation in patients with diabetes for a long time. According to the WHO recommendation (2002), the determination of the HbA1c content in the blood of diabetic patients should be carried out once a quarter. This indicator is widely used both for screening the population and pregnant women to detect disorders of carbohydrate metabolism, and to control the treatment of patients with diabetes.

Type 1 diabetes is a chronic autoimmune disease accompanied by the destruction of β-cells of the islets of Langerhans, so an early and accurate prognosis of the disease at the preclinical (asymptomatic) stage is very important. This will stop cell destruction and preserve the cell mass of β-cells as much as possible. Autoimmune mechanisms of cell destruction may be hereditary and/or triggered by some external factors such as viral infections, exposure to toxic substances and various forms of stress.

According to modern concepts, type 1 diabetes, despite its acute onset, has a long latent period. It is customary to distinguish six stages in the development of the disease. The first stage, genetic predisposition, is characterized by the presence or absence of genes associated with type 1 diabetes. The most informative genetic markers of type I DM are HLA antigens. Of great importance is the presence of HLA antigens, especially class II - DR 3, DR 4 and DQ. In this case, the risk of developing the disease increases many times over. To date, genetic predisposition to the development of type 1 diabetes is considered as a combination of different alleles of normal genes.

The detection of ICA has the greatest prognostic value in the development of type I DM. They appear 1-8 years before the clinical manifestation of the disease. The high prognostic value of determining ICA is also determined by the fact that patients with ICA, even in the absence of signs of diabetes, eventually also develop type I DM. Therefore, the determination of ICA is useful for the early diagnosis of this disease. Their detection allows the clinician to select a diet and conduct immunocorrective therapy. Depending on the immunological features of type I DM, type A1 is distinguished, in which the frequency of detection of autoantibodies after the development of the clinical picture reaches 90%, and after a year it decreases to 20%, and type B1, in which persistence of autoantibodies persists for a long time.

Tyrosine phosphatase is the second discovered autoantigen of islet cells, localized in dense granules of pancreatic beta cells. Together with antibodies to insulin, IA2 is more common in children than in adults. The clinical value of determining IA2 is important for identifying predisposed individuals and relatives of diabetic patients with a genetic predisposition to type I diabetes in a population. IA2 indicate aggressive destruction of β-cells.

Antibodies to insulin (IAA) and Antibodies to glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) - IAA are detected in the blood serum of patients with type 1 diabetes even before they are prescribed insulin therapy. They have a clear correlation with age.

AT last years an antigen was found that is the main target for autoantibodies associated with the development of insulin-dependent diabetes - GAD. This is a membrane enzyme that biosynthesises the CNS inhibitory neurotransmitter, gamma-aminobutyric acid.

The presence of autoantibodies to ICA, IAA, and GAD is associated with an approximately 50% risk of developing type 1 diabetes within 5 years and an 80% risk of developing type I diabetes within 10 years. Determination of antibodies against cellular components of β-cells of the islets of Langerhans, against glutamic acid decarboxylase and insulin in peripheral blood is important for identifying predisposed individuals and relatives of patients in a population

DM with a genetic predisposition to this disease.

Slide 8 - For the diagnosis and monitoring of diabetes, the following laboratory tests are used (according to WHO recommendations from 2002): routine laboratory tests and slide 9 - additional laboratory tests - allowing more detailed monitoring of diabetes.

Blood glucose test: on an empty stomach, the glucose content in capillary blood (blood from a finger) is determined. Glucose tolerance test: on an empty stomach, take about 75 g of glucose dissolved in 1-1.5 glasses of water, then determine the concentration of glucose in the blood after 0.5, 2 hours.

Urinalysis for glucose and ketone bodies: The detection of ketone bodies and glucose confirms the diagnosis of diabetes.

Determination of insulin and C-peptide in the blood: in the first type of diabetes, the amount of insulin and C-peptide is significantly reduced, and in the second type, values \u200b\u200bare within the normal range. C-peptide measurement has a number of advantages over insulin determination: the half-life of C-peptide in the circulation is longer than that of insulin, so the C-peptide level is a more stable indicator than insulin concentration. In immunological analysis, C-peptide does not cross with insulin, due to which the measurement of C-peptide makes it possible to evaluate insulin secretion even in the presence of exogenous insulin, as well as in the presence of insulin autoantibodies, which is important when examining patients with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus.

Complications of diabetes

Diabetes mellitus is one of the most dangerous diseases in terms of complications. If you carelessly treat your well-being, do not follow the diet, the disease will come with a high probability. And then the lack of treatment will necessarily manifest itself in a whole complex of complications, which are divided into several groups:

Acute
Late
Chronic

Acute complications

Acute complications of diabetes mellitus pose the greatest threat to human life. These complications include conditions that develop over a very short period: a few hours, at best, a few days. As a rule, all these conditions are fatal, and qualified assistance is required very quickly.

There are several options for acute complications of diabetes, each of which has causes and specific symptoms. We list the most common:

Complication	Cause	Symptoms, consequences	Risk group
Ketoacidosis	Accumulation in the blood of metabolic products (metabolism) of fats, i.e. dangerous ketone bodies. Contribute to this unhealthy diet, injury, surgery.	Loss of consciousness, a sharp violation in the work of vital organs	Patients with type 1 diabetes
hypoglycemia	Extreme drop in blood sugar. Causes: Pharmaceutical overdose, strong alcohol intake, excessive physical exercise	Loss of consciousness, a sharp jump in blood sugar levels in a short period of time, lack of pupillary response to light, increased sweating and seizures. The extreme form is coma.
Hyperosmolar coma	Elevated levels of sodium and glucose in the blood. It always develops against the background of prolonged dehydration.	Polydipsia (unquenchable thirst), polyuria (increased urination).	Patients with type 2 diabetes, most often the elderly
Lactic coma	Accumulation of lactic acid in the blood. It develops against the background of cardiovascular, renal and hepatic insufficiency.	Confusion, respiratory failure, lowering blood pressure, lack of urination.	Patients older than 50 years

Most of these complications develop very quickly, in just a few hours. But hyperosmolar coma can manifest itself several days and even weeks before the critical moment. It is very difficult to determine in advance the possibility of such an acute condition. Against the background of all the ailments experienced by the patient, specific signs are most often not noticeable.

Later consequences

Late complications develop over several years of illness. Their danger is not in acute manifestation, but in the fact that they gradually worsen the patient's condition. Even the presence of competent treatment sometimes cannot guarantee protection against this type of complications.

Late complications of diabetes include:

1. Retinopathy - damage to the retina, which then leads to hemorrhage in the fundus, retinal detachment. Gradually leads to complete loss of vision. Most often, retinopathy occurs in patients with type 2 diabetes. For a patient with an "experience" of over 20 years, the risk of retinopathy approaches 100%.

2. Angiopathy. Compared to other late complications, it develops quite quickly, sometimes in less than a year. It is a violation of the permeability of blood vessels, they become brittle. There is a tendency to thrombosis and atherosclerosis.

3. Polyneuropathy. Loss of sensation to pain and warmth in limbs. Most often it develops according to the "gloves and stockings" type, starting to appear simultaneously in the lower and upper extremities. The first symptoms are a feeling of numbness and burning in the extremities, which are greatly aggravated at night. Reduced sensitivity causes many injuries.

4. Diabetic foot. A complication in which open ulcers, purulent abscesses, necrotic (dead) areas appear on the feet and lower extremities of a patient with diabetes mellitus. Therefore, patients with diabetes should pay special attention to foot hygiene and the selection of the right shoes that will not squeeze the foot. You should also use special socks without compressing elastic bands.

Chronic complications

For 10-15 years of illness, even if the patient meets all the requirements of treatment, diabetes gradually destroys the body and leads to the development of serious chronic diseases. Considering that in diabetes mellitus the composition of the blood changes significantly towards the pathological side, one can expect chronic damage to all organs.

1. Vessels. First of all, in diabetes mellitus, blood vessels suffer. Their walls become less and less permeable to nutrients, and the lumen of the vessels gradually narrows. All body tissues are deficient in oxygen and other vital substances. The risk of heart attack, stroke, and the development of heart disease increases significantly.

2. kidneys. The kidneys of a patient with diabetes mellitus gradually lose their ability to perform their functions, and chronic insufficiency develops. First, microalbuminuria appears - the excretion of a protein such as Albumin in the urine, which is dangerous for health.

3. Leather. The blood supply to this organ in a patient with diabetes mellitus is significantly reduced, which leads to the constant development of trophic ulcers. They can become a source of infections or infections.

4. Nervous system. The nervous system of diabetics undergoes significant changes. We have already talked about limb insensitivity syndrome. In addition, there is constant weakness in the limbs. Often diabetics suffer from severe chronic pain.

Treatment of diabetes

It is not yet possible to cure diabetes, but, as doctors say, it can be compensated. Currently, developments are underway in the world in the field of diabetes treatment, which may have a positive impact on compensation methods, and possibly, in the future, on the treatment of diabetes.

The treatment of diabetes is different from the treatment of many other diseases. This is due to the fact that the diagnosis is made and, therefore, treatment is not started from the moment of a violation of carbohydrate metabolism, which is detected during various stress tests, but only when there are clear clinical signs of the disease.

The choice of therapy depends on many factors and may be different, depending on the individual characteristics of the patient.

Diabetes II treatment

In this disease, the absorption of sugar from the intestines is normal, but its passage from the blood to various cells of the body is impaired. In some cases, this problem, at least at the beginning of the disease, can be solved without medication - with the help of a diet and a lifestyle recommended by a doctor. Diet is an obligatory component of complex therapy, and in some patients it can be used as an independent method of treatment.

Medicines prescribed for type II diabetes do not contain insulin. The most widely used tablets stimulate the production of insulin by the cells of the pancreas. The most modern drug, belonging to a new chemical class with the international name repaglinide, has a short duration of action. It is taken immediately before a meal, and insulin production occurs exactly when it is needed, that is, after a meal. Sulfonylureas stimulate the production of insulin for a much longer time, which forces you to adhere to a strict diet.

A group of biguanides belongs to a number of less commonly used tablet preparations. They enhance the absorption of sugar into the cells and are mainly given to obese diabetics who are not very successful in losing weight.

These groups of drugs are effective as long as patients can produce enough insulin on their own. In many patients with diabetes mellitus II, tablets become ineffective, and then a switch to insulin cannot be avoided. In addition, there may be periods, for example during serious illnesses, when the hitherto successful treatment with tablets must be temporarily replaced by treatment with insulin.

Diabetes I treatment

Treatment with insulin should replace the work of the pancreas. This work consists of two parts: the determination of blood sugar levels and the release of an adequate amount of insulin.

Providing the body with insulin is quite simple. The only way to administer it is by injection; in tablets, it is destroyed by gastric juice. Insulin injected into the body by subcutaneous injection works just as well as insulin produced by the pancreas. Insulin injections help the body's cells absorb sugar from the blood.

The second part of the work of the pancreas is determining the level of sugar in the blood and the moment when it is necessary to secrete insulin. A healthy pancreas "feels" the increase in blood sugar after a meal and, accordingly, regulates the amount of insulin released. With the help of a doctor, it is important to learn how to combine the time of eating and the time of injections in order to constantly maintain normal level blood sugar to avoid high (hyperglycemia) or low (hypoglycemia) levels.

There are several types of insulin preparations. Your doctor will help you decide which drug is best for you to control your blood sugar and how often you need to take it.

Bibliography

1. Classification of diabetes mellitus, M.M. Petrova, Doctor of Medical Sciences, Prof. O.B. Kurumchin, G.A. Kirichkova, Bulletin of the Clinical Hospital No. 51;

2. Modern aspects of the pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes mellitus, T.V. Nikonova, article, journal "Diabetes Mellitus";

3. Insulin resistance in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes, M.I. Balabolkin, E.M. Klebanov, article, Journal "Diabetes";

4. Diabetes mellitus type 2: new aspects of the pathogenesis of the disease, Mukhamedzhanov E.K., Esyrev O.V., article, journal "Diabetes Mellitus";

5. Synthesis and secretion of insulin Access mode: http://www.biochemistry.ru/dm/dm2.htm (Accessed 16.12.2015)

6. Physiology and hormonal regulation of physiological functions. Endocrine glands. Pancreas Access mode: http://www.bibliotekar.ru/447/75.htm (Accessed 12/16/2015)

7. BioChemMac Group of Companies Diagnosis of diabetes mellitus

The modern stage of development of heuristics begins in the second half of the 20th century. and is associated with the emergence cybernetics and the need to develop search heuristic systems for scientific and inventive activities. Cybernetics arises as a science that studies General characteristics processes and control systems in technical devices, living organisms and human communities. The main tasks of heuristics are cognition, selection, description and modeling of situations in which heuristic activity is manifested.

At the same time, the appearance of works D. Poya on pedagogy related to heuristics, summing up its development at the previous stage and outlining the prospects. In the works of Polya, for the first time, the need for early, purposeful training in heuristic activity skills was considered, using the example of not only mathematical problems. Heuristics is now understood as:

1. Special methods of creative problem solving.

2. Organization of the process of productive creative thinking.

3. Method of writing computer programs (heuristic programming).

4. The science that studies heuristic activity, a special section of the science of thinking.

5. A special method of teaching or collective problem solving.

Special methods of creative problem solving are called "modern heuristics".

From the above definition, it is obvious that the understanding of heuristics as a science at the present stage big influence provided by cybernetics. The emphasis of research began to shift from obtaining a result to organizing intellectual activity to obtain it.

Heuristics originates in the psychology of thinking. As the main subject of research, she considers the organization of productive intellectual activity, based on mental acts, with the help of which the heuristic search process takes place. The main subject of the study of heuristics is the study of ways to search and generate information with their help to find solutions. The person who solves the problem forms hypotheses. Hypothesis- reception of cognitive activity, which is a set of assumptions about the method of achieving the goal. In the early stages, he lacks information about objects(objects of thought). The subsequent accumulation of information makes it possible to anticipate the solution path more and more reasonably.

The main tasks of heuristics as a science are:

Knowledge of the patterns of productive processes based on the psychological characteristics of their course;

Identification and description of real situations in which the heuristic activity of a person is manifested;

Learning the principles of organization models(artificial objects that display and reproduce in a simplified form the main structure of the studied real, as opposed to ideal object) for heuristic activity.

Ideal object- not existing in reality, but reflecting certain, as a rule - general, properties of real objects and serving as a heuristic tool for their scientific study.

Also, the tasks of modern heuristics include:

Fixing the levels of cognition of objects, which makes it possible to describe their structure and predict the dynamics of development;

Designing technical devices that implement the laws of heuristic activity.

Actually, the ability of human thinking to make a choice that reduces the number of possible options for finding a solution to a problem can be attributed to the heuristic characteristics of the levels of cognition. For example, a person is able to operate abstractions(abstraction is the result of a mental abstraction of certain properties from other properties of the object in question), to distribute all the objects given to it in the task breeds and types and on the basis of this, select possible ways to solve the problem.

Genus - the most general class of objects that unites species. Generic concept is a general term that includes species concepts. This distribution is preceded by abstraction specific features(properties that distinguish objects of one kind from another).

The ability to make an abstract choice can be represented by the following diagram:

Perception ------ Evaluation, analysis ------ Action

If we approach heuristic activity as specific activity on information processing, then we can also talk about computer heuristics, i.e. that heuristic actions are performed by a computer on the basis of programs prepared by a person.

Heuristic human activity is based on the generalized experience of applying successful strategies that are aimed at forming decisions. In one case, these are means of reduced hypothesis formation followed by a detailed rationale for the decision, in the other, they are means of reduced search for the area of a hypothetical solution. In both cases, heuristic activity is an objective activity of a person, which is accumulated in the experience and rules of heuristics on the basis of generalizations and abstraction from its specific manifestations.

The foregoing shows that at the present stage, heuristic activity is a complex and multifaceted type of human intellectual activity, which to a large extent is hidden and cannot be objectively studied and described within the framework of one science. Since heuristics is always the answer to a complex question(a question is a form of thinking that expresses the requirement of information regarding a certain object), then any scientific field that studies the human intellect necessarily concerns certain aspects of the organization of creative processes, which include heuristic activity. All this justifies the need to build special science- heuristics - which is based on the scientific achievements of other disciplines; this science, using its methods of generalization and research, would study the specific quality of the human intellect - heuristic activity. Heuristics should also investigate the regularities of such activity in technical cybernetics.

As the main subject of research, modern heuristics considers, of course, not elementary operations of the intellect (such as, for example, the distribution of objects by genera and species), but methods of searching and generating information (though based on elementary operations) to find solutions.

In addition to modeling production situations related to the formation of professional skills of specialists to make managerial decisions, organize production, develop plans for its development, it is possible to model the subject and social content of the mastered professional activity in engineering business games Oh.

Engineering business games can become a whole class of educational games in a technical university. Their use in the educational process allows you to set the subject and social contexts of professional activity already in the first year, determine the conditions for the development of theoretical and practical thinking engineer, his ability to work in a team, initiative, responsibility. General engineering skills include the analysis of professional situations, goal setting, the choice of the optimal solution to technical problems, their options, data processing and presentation, analysis and evaluation of the results achieved.

The systematic assimilation of subject and social skills in the process of an engineering business game contributes to the development of a creatively active, professionally and socially competent personality of an engineer of a new formation that meets the requirements of the time.

7. Heuristic learning technologies

7.1. Introduction to heuristics

Since ancient times, scientists and philosophers have been thinking about the following questions: how to carry out research so that they lead to the discovery of new knowledge? How to properly solve emerging problems? How to organize your mental activity so that it proceeds more purposefully and productively? Such questions did not receive an unequivocal answer, but gradually their study acquired an increasingly deeper character. Thus, it was recognized that there are patterns of thinking, different from logical operations, which allow organizing mental activity in such a way that it leads a person to new knowledge. These qualitative thought processes have been called heuristic. Scientific disciplines began to study these processes, the task of which was to study the intellectual behavior of a person, his thinking, the processes of his flow. Thus, at the intersection of a number of scientific disciplines, heuristics arose, which synthesized the knowledge of these areas in its specific object of study.

Heuristics (Greek "I discover, search, discover") is a science that studies the patterns of constructing new actions in a new situation, i.e. organization of productive thinking processes, on the basis of which the process of generating ideas (hypotheses) is intensified and their plausibility (probability, reliability) is consistently increased.

From the very birth of heuristics, along with the analysis of the processes of heuristic activity, the possibilities of purposeful training of this activity were also studied, i.e. heuristics was in contact with pedagogy. Gradually, one of the directions in the development of heuristics was clearly identified - pedagogical heuristics, which helps answer the question: how to teach heuristic activity? It considers the fundamental issues of organizing mental activity in the process of

1 The chapter is built using the materials of the book: Sokolov V.N. Pedagogical heuristics. M., 1995.

Pedagogical design and pedagogical technologies 205

learning, i.e. in the process of mastering those subjects that make up the system of professional knowledge.

Pedagogical heuristics today, like heuristics in general, is going through a period of formation when, on the basis of a large experimental and practical material theories are formed and strategic directions of research are determined. Let's name some of them. The history of heuristics and its pedagogical branch needs an objective assessment, rethinking from the point of view of modern pedagogical ideas. Many works of scientists of the past related to heuristics have been little studied, either because they were ahead of their time and were not understood by contemporaries and now represent a large and important layer of human thought, or because of the lack of publications in Russian, which actually closed for a long time. years of access to comprehensive and objective research. The urgent problem today is the scientific (and not empirical!) development of the methodological level of heuristic research, i.e. translation of theories, ideas, scientific provisions into "instrumental language", to the level pedagogical technologies. The theory of educational heuristic systems and methods requires further development. It is necessary to create scientifically based systems for searching for solutions to problems in various subject areas (mathematics, physics, chemistry, etc.). These systems serve as a good basis for the development of professional creative skills of students of relevant specialties. At the same time, there is the problem of creating and developing heuristic systems and methods for various professional areas.

7.2. The current stage of development of heuristics

The current stage in the development of heuristics as a science is associated with the emergence of cybernetics (50s) and is characterized by an intensive study of heuristic human activity. In addition, due to the quantitatively accumulated information, the attention of researchers is focused on the conceptual definition of heuristics. By heuristics they begin to understand: 1. Special methods for solving problems (heuristic methods), which are usually opposed to formal methods of solving, based on exact mathematical models. The use of heuristic methods reduces the time for solving problems in comparison with the method of complete undirected enumeration of possible alternatives; at the same time, the solutions obtained, as a rule, do not belong to the best, but to the set of feasible solutions; the use of heuristic methods does not always ensure the achievement of the goal.

2. Organization of the process of productive creative thinking (heuristic activity). In this case, heuristics is understood as a set of mechanisms inherent in a person, with the help of which procedures are generated aimed at solving creative problems (for example, mechanisms for establishing situational relationships in a problem situation, cutting off unpromising branches in a tree of options, forming rebuttals using counterexamples, etc. ). These mechanisms for solving creative problems are universal in nature and do not depend on the content of a specific problem being solved.

3. Method of writing computer programs (heuristic programming). If in conventional programming a programmer encodes a ready-made mathematical solution method into a form understandable by a computer, then in the case of heuristic programming, he tries to formalize the intuitively understandable method of solving a problem that, in his opinion, a person uses when solving such problems.

4. Science that studies heuristic activity; special branch of the science of thinking. Its main object is the creative activity of man; the most important problems associated with decision-making models, the search for new structuring descriptions of the external world for the subject and society. Heuristics as a science develops at the intersection of psychology, the theory of artificial intelligence, structural linguistics, and information theory.

5. A special method of teaching or collective problem solving. The considered definitions of heuristics show that heuristic activity is a complex, multifaceted, multifaceted type of human activity. Synthesizing the above individual aspects in understanding heuristics, one can formulate a conceptual definition of heuristics. Heuristics is understood as a science that studies the patterns of constructing new actions in a new situation. A new situation is a problem that has not been solved by anyone or an uninvented technical device, the need for which has been identified. (The situation will also be new when the student meets with a non-standard task of his level.) Getting into a new situation, a person looks for ways and means of solving this situation, ways that he has not met before in his practice and which he is not yet aware of. If the situation is not new, then human actions are algorithmic in nature, i.e. he remembers their sequence, which will surely lead to the goal. There are no elements of heuristic thinking in these actions, in contrast to a new situation, when the result must be objectively or subjectively new. Objectively - when the result is obtained for the first time, subjectively - when the result is new for the person who received it. As a science, heuristics solves the following problems:

Knowledge of the patterns of productive processes based on the psychological characteristics of their course;
identification and description of real situations in which heuristic human activity or its elements are manifested;
study of the principles of organization of conditions for heuristic activity;
modeling situations in which a person shows heuristic activity in order to study its course and learn its organization;
creation of targeted heuristic systems (general and private) based on the known objective patterns of heuristic activity;
designing technical devices that implement the laws of heuristic activity.

7.3. Educational heuristic activity

Heuristic functions of thinking are developed and implemented in the educational process, i.e. in the process of mastering certain academic disciplines. Representing educational process as false organized activity in solving educational problems, it becomes clear that the student is required to have quite certain special skills and abilities to organize the search for solutions to such problems. The most optimal activity in which productive ways of thinking, the ability to achieve goals and get the result of solving a problem are developed, is heuristic activity. Consider the features of educational heuristic activity and its course, as well as learning task as a subject of heuristic activity and those characteristics of the process of solving it that are associated with heuristic search.

Educational heuristic activity is an activity in the course of which the abilities are purposefully developed:

Understand the ways and methods of productive educational and cognitive activity, creatively copy them and learn from their own and borrowed experience;
systematize, i.e. organize educational information into interdisciplinary complexes and operate it in a heuristic search when performing specific actions;
adapt to changing species learning activities and anticipate its results;
plan and predict intellectual activity based on heuristic and logical operations and strategies;
form and make decisions on the organization complex types learning activities based on plausible reasoning, heuristic operations and strategies with their subsequent logical verification.

Heuristic activity without a developed and conscious skill of its implementation is characterized by many non-optimal features. Thus, there are well-known cases when some trainees, especially at the initial stages, try to find a solution to the problem by simply manipulating its data, i.e. they try to find a solution "at random", on the basis of undirected, unconscious, uncontrolled actions, although this is where the activity that is called heuristic should begin. Let us name some of the factors contributing to its successful implementation.

Selection by database: Abstract. Frontier control to section 3. Marmazova.docx, 4-6 sections of checkers.docx.
Pedagogical heuristics
CHAPTERI.

Heuristics in the system of modern knowledge.

Formation and development of heuristics.
Topic number 1.

Introduction to the discipline
"Eureka!" - this exclamation of the ancient scientist and inventor Archimedes is familiar to everyone since childhood. This word is not just a statement of the fact of the find. In our minds, it is associated with the expression of a higher sense of satisfaction, joy and delight from the found solution to a problem that no one has been able to solve before. More than two millennia have passed, the word appeared in our vocabulary "Heuristic" . At present, the concept corresponding to it is widely used. In our minds, it is always associated with creative activity. The common links linking together heuristics and creativity are ideas about non-triviality, originality, novelty, uniqueness.

Heuristic methods can be widely applied in the practice of a modern leader of any rank, including in the activities of a modern manager. Holding meetings, business games using heuristic methods (“brainstorming”, empathy, inversion, synectics, etc.) usually gives a lot of ideas, fundamentally new approaches to solving various types of management problems in commercial activities. Heuristic methods are now widely used in business and management, as they stimulate the development of intuitive thinking, imagination and creativity.

A creative, productive process in any field of activity is a multifaceted, complex process containing many components, even the circle of which is currently difficult to outline completely. It is associated with a high tension of all the spiritual forces of a person, requires intense activity and imagination, concentration of attention, volitional tension, mobilization of all knowledge and experience to solve the problem.

Creation is a purposeful theoretical and practical activity of people, which leads to the creation of new, previously unknown hypotheses, theories, methods, new technology and technology, works of art and literature.

Heuristic activity - one of the components of creativity, and heuristics - the oldest scientific field. It considers the fundamental issues of organizing mental activity in non-standard situations, that is, when a person faces a task (problem), the solution of which he had not previously encountered. It is difficult to form strong skills of heuristic activity in a future specialist without knowledge of its fundamental principles and classical methods. The use of heuristic systems and methods in scientific, technical, inventive, and any other creative work has now become a common approach to solving many emerging problems. Acquaintance with heuristic methods is the basis for effective practical activity of a specialist, including in the field of management. If a future manager is preparing for such a professional activity in which he must often form his decisions in changing (dynamic) and non-standard situations, then he needs knowledge of heuristic methods. Acquaintance with heuristic methods will allow you to fully realize yourself.

Oxford Dictionary in English interprets the heuristic as follows: Heuristic - the art of finding the truth, in particular, is used to characterize a system in which a person is taught to independently find an explanation for phenomena. Somewhat simplified, heuristics can be viewed from two sides. On the one hand, this is the art of finding the truth, which must have generally accepted scientific foundations and principles of its development. On the other hand, on the basis of the known patterns of heuristic activity, it is possible to build a system that would most optimally use the potential of thinking in activity and purposefully develop it qualitatively. The two considered sides put forward the need to develop heuristics that would harmoniously unite them: the areas of theoretical and practical heuristics, the area of organizing activities based on it.

The formation and development of heuristics occurred simultaneously with the development of science. Scientists and philosophers Ancient Greece thought about the questions: how can we look for what we do not know, and if we know what we are looking for, then why should we look for it? In the course of such reasoning, it was noticed that in order to find solutions to emerging scientific and practical problems, a person uses largely the same mental and organizational actions. The further development of science and the emergence of cybernetics marked the beginning of the modern stage of heuristics (50s), which is characterized by an intensive study of all aspects of productive thinking.

As a result, at the intersection of many scientific disciplines that study human intellectual behavior, synthesizing their achievements, heuristics in its modern sense arose as a science that studies the patterns of organization of human intellectual behavior when solving emerging new problems.

The fundamental ideas and patterns of heuristics, proven classical methods and heuristic search systems are studied with the aim of their subsequent purposeful application in the training of specialists in various fields of human activity, including management. All this should serve as the basis for the development of their creative potential. Outside of such conditions, creative inclinations are formed on the basis of the transition of the number of solved problems into the quality of skills for solving them, which naturally is not the optimal way to acquire them.

It was found that heuristics indeed provide independent movement towards knowledge, as well as the acquisition of solid, operational knowledge and skills, but at the same time it requires too much work and time to obtain these results.

At the present stage of formation of heuristics there is an intensive development of the conceptual and terminological apparatus. Synthesizing the achievements of various scientific fields, in the intersection of which it develops, heuristics simultaneously transfers them into terminology, although such a trend, of course, is of a general scientific nature. It is important to understand that a person is born not with knowledge, but with the ability to master and extract it. The specificity of heuristic activity is such that it is not uniquely defined, so heuristics wins the most when it is approached critically.

Heuristics originated and developed for a long time in the depths of philosophy. Scientists of antiquity conducted various studies in the fields of mathematics, physics, mechanics and other branches of knowledge, at the same time trying to answer the questions: how to conduct research so that they lead to the discovery of new patterns? How to properly solve emerging problems? How to organize your mental activity so that it proceeds purposefully? Such questions did not receive an unequivocal answer, but gradually their study acquired a deeper, more objective and practical character. These qualitative thought processes have been called heuristic.

In addition to philosophy, other scientific disciplines began to study these processes, the task of which was to study the intellectual behavior of a person, his thinking and the processes of its flow. Thus, at the intersection of a number of scientific disciplines, modern heuristics arose, which synthesized the knowledge of these areas in its specific object of study.
Topic number 2.

Formation and development of heuristics. history of its evolution.
Heuristics and maieutics of Socrates.
There are enough examples in the history of scientific knowledge when theoretical concepts with the development of science are filled with more precise content, sometimes absorbing the original term, and in some cases even significantly changing it. This happened with the concept of "heuristics".

Word " heuristic" comes from the Greek Heurisko- I find, I find, I discover, which meant in ancient Greece the teaching method used by Socrates (“Socratic conversation”). The structure of such a conversation consisted of a system of questions leading the student to correct solution the problem before him.

Heuristics is considered to be maieutics(translated from Greek - obstetrics, midwifery) - one of the methods of establishing the truth in a conversation or dispute. Its essence lay in the fact that Socrates, with the help of skillfully posed questions and the answers received, consistently led the interlocutor to true knowledge. Maieutics, according to Socrates, was always implemented in combination with other techniques:

by induction requiring a transition to general concepts from ordinary ideas and isolated examples;

definition, meaning a gradual entry to the correct definition of the concept on the basis of the original definitions.

A dispute or conversation using the maieutics method should take place according to the following scheme: the interlocutor is required to define (define) the issue under discussion, and if his answer turns out to be superficial, that is, does not affect the essence, then the interlocutor is offered new examples to clarify the original definition. The result is a more precise definition, which is further tested with new examples, and so on until the true thought is “born”.

Thus, the essence of Socratic heuristics as a question-answer form of learning is the system of questions of the teacher-mentor. The developmental effect of training largely depends on his skill, knowledge of alternative ways to achieve the goal.

In the modern sense, this method is used in teaching and consists in the fact that the trainee, through a series of questions, is led to a solution to the problem to be considered. This method is applicable in all cases when one wants to excite in the trainee the ability to combine known data. This method is applicable when thought tension and deduction are required. With the correct and systematic formulation of questions, the method can develop ingenuity and ingenuity. With the inept formulation of questions, on the contrary, he develops in the trainee the desire for answers at random.
Archimedes method .
Simultaneously with the Socratic understanding of heuristics, many ancient scientists used various methods to find a solution to the problem. These methods, in the modern sense. were heuristic. So, Archimedes (287 - 212 BC) in the essay "The Doctrine of the Methods of Mechanics" sets out the theory of finding solutions to new problems: with the help of mechanical representations (in modern terminology - physical models), hypotheses of the solution are found, which are further studied and tested with the help of mathematics. The art of solving difficult problems for which there are no simple and easily chosen ways, gets its name from the famous jubilant exclamation "Eureka!" (“Found!”) at the moment when the scientist realized how to determine the volume of the crown (irregularly shaped body).
Heuristic Dad.
An interesting source related to heuristics is the Mathematical Compilation by the Greek mathematician Pope (c. 300 AD). In his VII volume, he discusses the branch of science, which in Greek can be interpreted as heuristics.

The starting point of his analysis is that it is required to prove that the problem has already been solved. Conclusions were drawn from this task, other conclusions were drawn from these conclusions, and so on. until they come to such a conclusion that can be used as the beginning of a synthesis, because in the analysis they consider that what is required to be done according to the conditions of the problem has already been completed (what is sought is already found; what is required to be proved is proven). Determine from which antecedent the inference of interest can be obtained, then re-determine which inference can be derived from that antecedent, and so on, moving from one inference to the antecedent that caused it, until one arrives at the conclusion that was obtained before or taken as true. This approach is called analogy or solving problems to the end, or regressive reasoning.

In synthesis, changing the order of this process, one starts from the last conclusion of the analysis, from what is already known or accepted as true. Taking what is known as a starting point, one draws the conclusion that preceded it in the analysis, and continues to draw conclusions in this way until, going back along the path traversed in the analysis, one arrives at what needs to be proved. This approach is called synthesis or constructive decision, or progressive reasoning.

There are two types of analysis. One type of analysis is the solution of "proof problems". He sets himself the goal of establishing true theorems. Another type of analysis is the analysis of the solution of "problems for finding". This type of analysis aims to find the unknown.

Obviously, Pope's techniques are by no means limited to mathematical problems. These methods of intellectual activity are universal and do not depend on the subject of research. An interesting non-mathematical interpretation of the methods of analysis and synthesis described by Pappus was given by D. Poya.

Let's consider a specific example. Primitive man needs to cross a fairly deep stream. He can't do it normally. So crossing becomes a problem where "stream crossing" is an unknown X this problem. A person may remember that he once crossed another stream on a fallen tree. He will start looking around to find such a fallen tree that becomes the new unknown. at . Let's assume that he failed to find such a tree. However, there are other trees along the stream. Naturally, he would like one of them to fall. Can he make the tree fall across the stream? This is a wonderful idea! But a new unknown arises z : how to cut down a tree across a stream?

Such a train of thought, in the terminology of the Pope, should be called analysis. And indeed, this primitive may become the inventor of the bridge and the axe, if he succeeds in completing his analysis. What will be the synthesis in this case? Turning these ideas into action. The final stage of the synthesis will be a tree crossing through the stream. The same elements constitute analysis and synthesis. In analysis, the human mind is exercised, and the muscles in synthesis. Analysis is thought, synthesis is action. There is another difference - the opposite of order. Summarizing, we can say that analysis is invention, synthesis is execution, analysis is drawing up a plan, and synthesis is its implementation.
Heuristics in the works of Descartes.
Rene Descartes (1596 - 1650) made a significant push in the direction of scientific thought towards the study of heuristic activity. He has done research in many natural areas Sciences. In mathematics, his scientific interests were in the development of new methods. So, R. Descartes combined the methods of algebra and geometry, resulting in the appearance analytic geometry. It technically revolutionized the methodology of mathematics, since the use of equations made it possible to prove various properties of geometric curves much more simply than by purely geometric methods.

Continuing research in the field of methodology, R. Descartes sought to develop a universal method for solving problems. Here is a scheme that he suggested could be applied to all sorts of problems:

– a problem of any kind is reduced to a mathematical problem;

- a mathematical problem of any kind is reduced to an algebraic problem;

- any problem is reduced to solving a single equation.

Over time, Descartes himself admitted that there are cases where his scheme does not work, although it is suitable for a huge number of them. Problems relating to the intellectual activity of a person when solving problems are set in the "Rules for the Guidance of the Mind". In them, Descartes suggested considering:

- what should be the process of mental work in solving problems;

– analysis of the solution of correctly and incorrectly posed problems.

Descartes saw his main goal in finding a way to establish the truth in any area. He dedicated the main work of his life, Discourses on Method, to this. Descartes' project is considered great, it had a greater impact on science than thousands of other small projects, even those that could be realized.
Heuristic ideas of Leibniz.
The German philosopher Gottfried Leibniz (1646 - 1716), like Descartes, was engaged in extensive scientific activity in the field of mathematics, physics, biology, history and logic. He considered scientific activity as a religious mission entrusted to scientists. His philosophy of science was aimed at encouraging man to discover and invent. Numerous and original fragments describing the organization of the creative process are scattered in his writings. These are actually various heuristic rules and techniques that help find ways to solve new problems. Leibniz argued that nothing is more important than the ability to find the source of an invention, which is even more interesting than the invention itself.

One of his scientific goals, he considered the creation of the logic of invention, based on the property of the mind not only to evaluate the obvious, but also to discover the hidden. To do this, he used combinatorics. Logic, according to Leibniz, should teach other sciences the method of discovering and proving all the consequences that follow from given premises.

Its main principles are:

complex concepts are deduced from simple ones only with the help of operations of logical multiplication and intersection of the volumes of concepts in the logic of classes;

a set of simple concepts must satisfy the consistency criterion;

any statement can be equivalently translated into another form;

Every true affirmative sentence is analytic.

The formation of Leibniz's methodological views was influenced by Descartes' thoughts about the possibility of constructing a universal logical-mathematical method for solving scientific problems. Leibniz and Descartes hoped that they would be able to expand logic into a universal science of thought applicable to all areas of the human mind - to build a kind of universal calculus of thought.

According to Leibniz's plans, which were somewhat more specific than Descartes' plans, three main elements are necessary to build a universal logic. The first element is a universal scientific language, partially or wholly symbolic, and applicable to all truths deduced by reasoning. The second element is an exhaustive set of logical forms of thinking that allow any deductive conclusion to be drawn from initial principles. The third element is a set of basic concepts through which all other concepts are defined, a kind of alphabet of thinking that allows you to match a symbol with each simple idea. By combining symbols and performing various operations on them, it is possible to express and transform more complex concepts.

Neither Descartes nor Leibniz succeeded in developing a consistent symbolic calculus of logic. They created only fragments that were very far from their task: to reduce any reasoning to calculation. Leibniz dreamed of creating a situation in which one of the disputants could always say to the other: “You say one thing, I say another; Well, let's figure out which of us is right.
Topic number 3.
Benchmarking in heuristicsXIXcentury
Works by Saint-Simon and Bolzano
The French scientist A. Saint-Simon (1760-1825) paid much attention to the study of comparison as an important cognitive tool. He argued that "all the work of the human mind ultimately comes down to comparisons: to say, for example, that a thing is good or bad is to say that it is better or worse than the other with which it is compared." He put forward the idea of creating a special science of comparing ideas, pointing out mathematics as a model for it, which is "the science of the most accurate and deepest comparisons." It should be noted that the comparative method in the XIX century. It has been widely used in the sciences that have accumulated a large amount of empirical material.

Of considerable interest for determining the essence of heuristics are the ideas of the Czech logician, mathematician and philosopher Bernardo Bolzano (1781-1848), set forth in the "Science", his main logical and philosophical work. It deals with the problems of classical logic, theory of knowledge, theory of science, psychology of thinking, heuristics and pedagogy. Such a fundamental approach to the study of intellectual activity made it possible to consider the following questions: what is cognition and knowledge? What is truth? What are the means and ways of knowing the truth? What are the forms and rules of any cognitive activity?

In his presentation of the heuristic activity B. Bolzano takes a step forward in comparison with Descartes and Leibniz, critically developing the ideas of his predecessors. Thus, Bolzano showed that reference to any kind of evidence cannot serve as evidence in scientific research. All delusions, according to Bolzano, stem from the fact that we incorrectly estimate the probabilities of heuristic conclusions and often use these conclusions as proven ones.
Boole Algebra.
Irish professor of mathematics George Boole (1815-1864) made outstanding progress in the critical revision of logic. He proposed and developed a generalization of algebraic reasoning in the form of an algebra of operators. His position was that algebra should not necessarily deal with the consideration of numbers alone and that the laws of algebra should coincide with the laws of arithmetic for real and complex numbers. Boole's main idea is that the existing laws of thought can be represented in a symbolic form, which makes it possible to give a more precise meaning to ordinary logical reasoning and to simplify their application.
Heuristics in the works of Poincaré.
The French mathematician Henri Poincaré (1854-1912) paid much attention to questions of the methodology of science and heuristics itself. He believed that the laws of science do not apply to real world, but are arbitrary conventions that should serve the most convenient and useful (in accordance with Mach's "principle of economy of thought") description of the corresponding phenomena.

Considering the mechanism of mathematical creativity, Poincare emphasized that it does not differ significantly from any creative activity, therefore, by studying it, we have the right to count on penetration into the very essence of the human mind. For this, first of all, the scientist believed, it is necessary to know psychological mechanism creativity, therefore, observations on the work of a mathematician, in his opinion, are especially instructive for a psychologist.

Poincaré believed that a solution or a proof can evoke in us a sense of elegance when there is a harmony of individual parts, their symmetry, their happy balance - everything that brings order, that tells these parts the whole at the same time as the details.

scientific method Poincare is about observation and experiment, but since time is limited, the scientist must make certain choices in order to establish patterns. The principles of choice for many researchers are not devoid of analogy. A rule is preliminarily established that covers systematically repeated facts. Further, such facts are of no interest, since they no longer teach anything new. Exceptions are now of interest, and above all the sharpest ones, because they are not only the most conspicuous, but also the most instructive. Thus, if any rule is established, we must first investigate those cases in which the rule is most likely to be wrong.

Having carried out research on the similarity of facts to the rule and their differences, it is necessary to focus on those analogies that are often found in apparent differences. A new result is worthy of high appraisal if it links together known elements, which until then were scattered and seemed alien to each other. He brings order suddenly to where there has been chaos so far. Scientific progress is driven by unexpected convergences between different parts of science.

Poincaré attached great importance to sudden insight. He was struck by the nature of insight, which undoubtedly testifies to a long preliminary unconscious work. This work is fruitful only if it is preceded and followed by a period of conscious work. In any case, the role of this unconscious work in the process of mathematical creativity is great and undeniable. Random facts Poincaré considered random for the ignoramus, but not for the scientist. Randomness in his interpretation is a measure of our ignorance, therefore random phenomena will be those whose laws are unknown to us.

In his extensive methodological works, Poincaré paid great attention to both mathematical creativity and the teaching of mathematics. The questions of scientific creativity developed by him are related to the problems of heuristics, outlined on the basis of his own experience.
Engelmeyer's heuristic.
In the first half of the 20th century, work began to appear on the problems of heuristic activity in certain specific areas. So, in 1910. PC. Engelmeyer published a theory of creativity, a study on scientific and technical creativity, in which he developed and more general issues creation of a whole science of creativity - neurology, emphasizing the unity of the heuristic and logical principles of this science.

Technical creativity of P.K. Engelmeyer considered it as a phenomenon characteristic of any developing organism. He divided the single organic process of creativity into three qualitatively different acts.

The first act is intent. Only this act is related to psychology. Its result is the emergence of an idea, that is, a hypothesis of a future invention. The act begins with an intuitive feeling of an idea and ends with its clarification. The specific path of solution comes to the inventor in the process of thinking suddenly, like an instantaneous flash in the understanding of the goal.

The second act is the plan. This act is based on logic, since its result is a logical scheme of the future construction.

The third act is action. This act is related to the real, since at this stage the inventor gives way to the artisan.

At the same time - the first decade of the XX century. - there are works of teachers-mathematicians who associated successful teaching of mathematics with heuristics. Thus, the French teacher Lezan presented his system in the form of advice to the teacher. These tips are based on keeping the trainee's mind open and supporting imitation of self-discovery. A similar concept was supported by S.I. Shorokh-Trotsky. great attention heuristic teaching methods were given by N.A. Izvolsky, who saw the main task of teaching in the development of creative abilities based on these methods.

Based on the analysis of the processes of formation and development of heuristics, the following conclusions can be drawn:

It turned out that to solve such problems it is possible to apply fairly general, not related only to a narrow subject area, guides, rules, recommendations. They do not guarantee the achievement of the goal, but they significantly increase the likelihood of success with their goal-oriented sequence compared to unorganized search.

The attempts made to formalize such systems on the basis of the identification of logic and thinking did not reach the goal. This was an unpromising path for the development of heuristics, on which, however, new scientific directions were born.

During the development of heuristics, almost all existing methods of traditional heuristic activity have arisen and studied.

In fact, a view was formed on heuristics as a science, which is based on areas that study the intellectual behavior of a person.

Topic number 4.
The current stage of development of heuristics
Significance of Poya's work.
The modern stage of development of heuristics begins in the second half of the 20th century. It is associated with the emergence of cybernetics and the need to develop search heuristic systems for scientific and inventive activities. By this time, the appearance fundamental research D. Poya on heuristics, summing up its development at the previous stage and outlining its prospects. He wrote: “Descartes pondered over a universal method suitable for solving any problems; Leibniz formulated the idea of the perfect method most clearly. However, the search for a universal, perfect method gave no more effect than the search for the philosopher's stone, which turns base metals into gold. However, such unattainable ideals do not remain useless - while no one has reached the North Star, but many, looking at it, have found the right path. Polya's work was the first to consider the need for early purposeful training in heuristic activity skills. He expressed the main idea of his works in the following words: “The process of solving a problem is a search for a way out of a difficulty or a way around an obstacle - this is a process of achieving a goal that initially does not seem immediately available. Problem solving is a specific feature of intelligence, and intelligence is a special gift of a person; Therefore, problem solving can be considered as one of the most characteristic manifestations of human activity.

Gradually, the efforts of scientists shifted from trying to find a universal method to a consistent study of the patterns of heuristic human activity. "Heuristics aims to establish the general patterns of those processes that take place in solving all kinds of problems, regardless of their content."
Modern definitions of heuristics.
The study of the heuristic intellectual activity of a person and the practical application of the identified patterns of its course in various scientific activities caused the contextual definition of heuristics. The understanding of heuristics in various scientific fields of knowledge has been transformed under the influence of the specifics of its application in these areas. There was a quantitative accumulation of information.

Under heuristics began to understand:

Organization of the process of productive creative thinking (heuristic activity). In this sense, heuristics is understood as a set of mechanisms inherent in a person, with the help of which procedures are generated aimed at solving creative problems (for example, mechanisms for establishing situational relationships in a problem situation, cutting off unpromising branches in a tree of options, forming rebuttals using counterexamples, etc. ). These mechanisms, which together determine the metatheory of solving creative problems, are universal in nature and do not depend on the specific problem being solved. A way of writing computer programs (heuristic programming). If in conventional programming a programmer recodes a ready-made mathematical solution method into a form understandable by a computer, then in the case of heuristic programming, he tries to formalize the intuitively understandable method of solving a problem that, in his opinion, a person uses when solving such problems. Like heuristic methods, heuristic programs do not ensure the absolute achievement of the goal and the optimality of the result.

The science that studies heuristic activity; special branch of the science of thinking. Its main object is creative activity; the most important problems-tasks associated with decision-making models (in conditions of non-standard problem situations), the search for a new for the subject or society of structuring descriptions of the outside world (based on classifications such as periodic system elements D.I. Mendeleev or plant taxonomy K. Linnaeus). Heuristics as a science develops at the intersection of psychology, the theory of artificial intelligence, structural linguistics, and information theory.

A special teaching method (“Socratic conversations”) or a method of collective problem solving. Heuristic learning, dating back historically to Socrates, consists of asking learners a series of leading questions and examples. A collective method for solving difficult problems, called "brainstorming", is based on the fact that team members ask the author ideas for solutions, leading questions, examples, counterexamples.

Such definitions confirm the opinion of many researchers that heuristics will survive its period of formation. The emphasis of research began to shift from obtaining a result to organizing intellectual activity to obtain it. There is an increasing scientific interest in the methods of organizing the receipt of results, which made it possible to apply the method found to other emerging problems in various areas of human professional activity, including the field of management.
Topic number 5.
The subject and tasks of heuristics.
The considered definitions of heuristics show that heuristic activity is a complex, multifaceted and multifaceted type of human intellectual activity, which to a greater extent occurs hidden and cannot be objectively studied and described within the framework of one science.

Therefore, heuristics synthesizes the results of various sciences and, on this basis, establishes the patterns of organization of heuristic activities. Such sciences are, first of all, the psychology of thinking, the physiology of higher nervous activity, philosophy, cybernetics, logic, pedagogy, and some others. In general, any scientific field that studies human intelligence necessarily concerns certain aspects of the organization of creative processes, which include heuristic activity. All this justifies the need to build a special science - heuristics, which, based on the scientific achievements of other disciplines and using its methods of generalization and research, would study the specific quality of human intelligence - heuristic activity. Heuristics should also investigate the regularities of such activity in technical cybernetics.

All this allows us to give the following definition heuristics: by heuristics as a science we will understand the science that studies the patterns of constructing new actions in a new situation.

A new situation is a problem that has not been solved by anyone or a technical device that has not been invented, the need for which has been identified. The situation will also be new when a specialist encounters a non-standard problem of his level, the proof of which he must independently find. Getting into a new situation, a person is looking for ways out of it, that is, solutions that are unknown to him and which he has not yet met in his practice. This may be a fundamentally new method or a new sequence of well-known actions. Thus, heuristics focuses on the study of the patterns of constructing new actions that are similar in many ways, regardless of the subject area of application. If the situation is not new, then the person's actions are algorithmic in nature, that is, he simply remembers their sequence, which will certainly lead to the goal. In these actions there are no elements of productive thinking, in contrast to the new situation, when the result must be objective or subjective - when the result is new for the person who received it.

Heuristics as a science originates in the psychology of thinking. As the main subject of research, she considers the organization of productive intellectual activity, based on mental acts, with the help of which the heuristic search process takes place.

As is known, thinking committed and develops in the following forms:

abstraction, generalization, concretization;

induction, deduction, analogy;

finding connections and relationships;

formation of concepts, their classification and systematization.

However, as the main subject of study heuristics considers the main operations based on these mental acts, from which it starts as given. main subject her research is the study of ways to search and form information with their help to find solutions. The person solving the problem forms hypotheses based on the information model of the problem task, starting with the most general and oriented one. At the first stages of the decision, he lacks information to draw a categorical and confident conclusion. Its subsequent accumulation makes it possible to anticipate the path of the solution more and more reasonably. The second feature in the subject of heuristics research is that different types and forms of thinking do not occur separately, but in interconnection, therefore, the main thing in solving a problem is a combination of various heuristic and logical operations, their systematic application. At the same time, complex search operations act not as a result of the usual mechanical combination of elementary operations, but as a result of complex intellectual activity, in which heuristic, algorithmic, algorithmic (logical) components of thinking are interconnected, and often subjectively.

The main tasks of heuristics as sciences are:

knowledge

patterns of productive processes

identification and description of real situations, in which heuristic human activity or its elements are manifested;

study of the principles of organization of conditions (models), for heuristic activity;

modeling situations in which a person manifests heuristic activity, with the aim of studying its course and learning its organization;

creation of targeted heuristic systems(general and particular) on the basis of the known objective patterns of heuristic activity;

design of technical devices, realizing the laws of heuristic activity.

Topic number 6.

Heuristics in the system of other sciences.
Heuristics and psychology of thinking
The formation and development of heuristics as a science that arose at the intersection of several scientific disciplines makes it necessary to consider its fundamental connections with them.

One of the main areas of traditional scientific research heuristic human activity is psychology of thinking , in which heuristics stood out in one of its sections. It conducts work on the study of the nature of human mental operations in solving various problems, regardless of their specific content and subject area. Main task psychological analysis thinking in this case becomes the elucidation of the heuristics used by a person, their systematization and the development of recommendations for the active management of the process of their assimilation and application. Studies are carried out on specially selected material, convenient for analysis, and are, as a rule, of a short-term nature. Heuristics in these studies are understood as guesses, special methods and techniques based on generalized experience in solving intellectual problems. The combination of these techniques and methods develops the ability to find approaches to problems, the methods for solving which are unknown to man.

Thinking - complex cognitive mental process interaction of the knowing person with the cognitive object. It is the leading form of human orientation in reality. Almost always, thinking is, in fact, a creative process with elements of a heuristic search of a certain level, since it occurs in situations in which new information and ways of processing it are needed to make a decision. In the process of thinking, a person can set himself tasks and formulate answers, put forward hypotheses, build evidence, create scientific theories and inventions. In any complex mental activity, there is heuristic activity as an element of creative thinking. Thinking is able to combine, compare and contrast information about phenomena and objects that are not directly related to each other. Revealing natural essential connections, thinking is able to foresee the ways further development material world - forecasting, and thus outperform it. These abilities are based on the most important characteristics of thinking - generalizations and mediation reflections of the surrounding reality.

One of the theories claiming to describe thinking is based on the classical association theory . In it, thinking is understood as a connection between stimuli and reactions or elements of behavior and is interpreted as laws governing the sequence of elements of behavior (“ideas”). An "idea" in classical association theory is a copy, a trace of stimuli. The theory is based on the following law of succession: if two objects A and B are often found together, then the presentation of A will recall the object B, that is, the connection is based on the principle of superficial externality. causation(such as linking a phone number to an owner's name).

The list of operations in association theory is as follows:

the role of frequency of repetition, novelty;

recalling past experiences;

trial and error with occasional success;

learning based on repetition of a successful trial;

actions in accordance with conditioned reactions and habits.

However, the thought process differs from free association primarily in that thinking is directed association. The factor that directs association and turns it into thinking is the goal. An essential property of associative links is that they represent the basis of such an ordered storage of information in the human brain, which provides a quick search for the necessary information by referring to the necessary material by association.
Heuristics and logic.
There is an approach to describing thinking based on identification of the functions of thinking and logic . Currently logics (Greek - word, thought, speech, mind) as science is a synthesis of scientific achievements about the laws and forms of thinking. Traditional and mathematical logics study the laws of obtaining knowledge from previously established truths, without recourse in each case to experience. This happens on the basis of the laws of inferential knowledge.

Traditional logic can be called the arithmetic of logic. She studies the following general laws:

identity law

law of contradiction: two opposite thoughts about the same subject, taken at the same time and in the same relation, cannot be true at the same time;

law of the excluded middle: of two contradictory statements at the same time and in the same respect, one is necessarily true;

law of sufficient reason: every true thought must be justified by other thoughts, the truth of which has been proven.

Traditional logic considers how to build reasoning correctly in form, so that, subject to the correct application of formal-logical laws, to come to true conclusion from true messages. Mathematical logic is the algebra of formal logic. It studies the operation of basically the same laws, but mathematical methods, which allows its results to be applied, for example, in cybernetics. Based on the laws and rules of logic, certain combinations of judgments make it possible to obtain "new" correct judgments, but their novelty is only in the obvious expansion of existing knowledge. Logic, studying the structure of a separate thought and various combinations of thoughts into complex forms, abstracts not only from the specific content, but also from the processes of emergence, formation, creative development thoughts, which excludes the possibility of describing thinking in terms of traditional logic.

Logics has great educational value:

- constant striving for true knowledge;

- special attention to the difference between a simple statement, belief, exact judgment;

- finding and studying the difference between insufficiently clear concepts, vague generalizations and precise formulations;

- the development of formal criteria to detect errors, ambiguities, illegal generalizations, hasty conclusions;

– understanding the importance of evidence; the requirement of persuasiveness and rigor of each individual step of thinking.

These virtues of traditional logic refute the claim that it is not related to real behavior. Real behavior will not achieve a reasonable goal if it is determined by factors analogous to errors in traditional logic.
Heuristics and cybernetics. Heuristics and intelligence.
With the development of information theory and cybernetics, many researchers began to describe thinking as a process of processing information by a person. Cybernetics (Greek - the art of management) - the science of managing, receiving, transmitting and converting information in systems of any nature (cybernetic systems): technical, biological, economic, etc. This approach does not define thinking, it points to one of its main properties, which is its cognitive side of actively extracting information from the external environment and processing it. Regarding this approach, Academician A.K. Kolmogorov spoke as follows: “I belong to those cybernetics who do not see any fundamental limitations in the cybernetic approach to the problem of life, and I believe that it is possible to analyze life in its entirety, including human consciousness with all its complexity, using the methods of cybernetics.”

When considering thinking, the concept " intelligence "(lat. - knowledge, understanding, reason). Intelligence is a system of mental abilities as a level of development of thinking. Sometimes they say that thinking is intelligence in action. The intellect includes a system of all cognitive functions of a person: from sensation and perception to thinking and imagination.

The main qualities that characterize intelligence and are studied in various disciplines include:

- the ability to understand and learn from experience; acquire and retain knowledge; mental capacity;

- the ability to measure quickly and correctly respond to a new situation; the ability to reason when choosing an action strategy;

- a measure of success in using the listed abilities in the performance of a specific activity.

The formation and development of intelligence occurs on the basis of labor as purposeful activity in the surrounding world. Here the most essential quality of the human intellect is also manifested, which allows you to reflect the laws of the surrounding world and, on this basis, transform it. This is also related to the generalization of the understanding of intelligence as the cognitive activity of any complex systems capable of learning, purposeful processing of information and self-regulation. At the same time, heuristic activity must be considered as an intellectual (thinking) activity in a new non-standard situation. All this is explained by the approach to research that cybernetics implements.

Subject and tasks of microbiology. The main directions of development of modern microbiology: general, medical, sanitary, veterinary, industrial, soil, water, space, geological, genetics of microorganisms, ecology of microorganisms.

Microbiology- the science of living organisms invisible to the naked eye (microorganisms): bacteria, archaebacteria, microscopic fungi and algae, often this list is extended by protozoa and viruses. The area of interest of microbiology includes their systematics, morphology, physiology, biochemistry, evolution, role in ecosystems, as well as the possibility of practical use.

Microbiology subject - Microorganisms – This organisms invisible to the naked eye due to their small size. This criterion is the only one that unites them. Otherwise, the world of microorganisms is even more diverse than the world of macroorganisms.

microbiology studies morphology, systematics and physiology of microorganisms, explores the general conditions, finds out the role they play in the transformation various substances the nature around us.

Tasks modern microbiology are diverse, specific, that a number of specialized disciplines have emerged from it - medical, veterinary, agricultural and industrial.

During the existence of microbiology, general, technical, agricultural, veterinary, medical, and sanitary branches have been formed.

· General studies the most general patterns inherent in each group of the listed microorganisms: structure, metabolism, genetics, ecology, etc.

· Technical (Industrial) is engaged in the development of biotechnology for the synthesis of biologically active substances by microorganisms: proteins, nucleic acids, antibiotics, alcohols, enzymes, as well as rare inorganic compounds.

· Agricultural explores the role of microorganisms in the circulation of substances, uses them for the synthesis of fertilizers, pest control.

· Veterinary studies pathogens of animal diseases, diagnostic methods, specific prophylaxis and etiotropic treatment aimed at the destruction of the infectious agent in the body of a sick animal.

· Medical microbiology studies pathogenic (pathogenic) and conditionally pathogenic microorganisms for humans, and also develops methods for microbiological diagnostics, specific prevention and etiotropic treatment of infectious diseases caused by them.

· Sanitary microbiology studies the sanitary and microbiological state of environmental objects, food products and drinks, and develops sanitary and microbiological standards and methods for indicating pathogenic microorganisms in various objects and products.

Genetics of microorganisms, section of the general genetics , in which bacteria, microscopic fungi, actinophages, viruses of animals and plants, bacteriophages, and other microorganisms serve as the object of study.

Ecology of microorganisms the science of the relationship of microbes with each other and with environment. In medical microbiology, the object of study is the complex of relationships between microorganisms and humans.

The history of the emergence and development of microbiology. Discovery of microorganisms by A. Leeuwenhoek. Morphological period of development of microbiology. Physiological period of development of microbiology. Scientific activity of L. Pasteur (study of the nature of fermentation, infectious diseases). R. Koch's research in the field of medical microbiology. Modern period of development of microbiology. Significance of molecular genetic and molecular biological research in the development of microbiology and virology. The use of microorganisms in biotechnology, biohydrometallurgy. Bacterial biopesticides, biofertilizers, microbial utilization of MSW and other wastes.

The history of the development of microbiology can be divided into five stages: heuristic, morphological, physiological, immunological and molecular genetic.

Heuristic period (IV.III millennium BC .XVI century AD) is associated rather with logical and methodological methods of finding the truth, i.e. heuristics than with any experiments and proofs. The thinkers of that time (Hippocrates, the Roman writer Varro, etc.) made assumptions about the nature of contagious diseases, miasma, small invisible animals. These ideas were formulated into a coherent hypothesis many centuries later in the writings of the Italian physician D. Fracastoro (1478.1553), who expressed the idea of a living contagium (contagium vivum), which causes disease. Moreover, each disease is caused by its contagion. To protect against diseases, they were recommended isolation of the patient, quarantine, wearing masks, and treating objects with vinegar.

Thus, D. Fracastoro was one of the founders of epidemiology, that is, the science of the causes, conditions and mechanisms of the formation of diseases and methods for their prevention.

With the invention of the microscope by A. Leeuwenhoek, the next stage in the development of microbiology begins, called morphological .

By profession, Leeuwenhoek was a cloth merchant, served as city treasurer, and from 1679 was also a winemaker.

Leeuwenhoek himself polished simple lenses, which were optically so perfect that they made it possible to see the smallest creatures - microorganisms (linear magnification 160 times).

He showed extraordinary powers of observation and an accuracy of descriptions striking in his time. He was the first to describe a mold that grew on meat, later he describes “living animals” in rain and well water, various infusions, in feces, and in plaque. A. Levenguk conducted all the research alone, not trusting anyone. He clearly understood the difference between observations and their interpretation.

In 1698, A. Leeuwenhoek invited the Russian Tsar Peter the Great, who was in Holland at that time, to visit him. The king was delighted with what he saw through the microscope. A. Levenguk gave Peter two microscopes. They served as the beginning of the study of microorganisms in Russia.
In 1675, A. van Leeuwenhoek introduced the terms microbe, bacteria, and protozoa into science. A. Leeuwenhoek's discovery of the world of microorganisms gave a powerful impetus to the study of these mysterious creatures. For a whole century, more and more new microorganisms were discovered and described. “How many miracles these tiny creatures hide in themselves,” wrote A. van Leeuwenhoek.

Physiological period in the development of microbiology. This stage is associated with the name L. Pasteur, who became the founder of medical microbiology, as well as immunology and biotechnology.

By the beginning of the activity of L. Pasteur, microbiology did not yet exist as an independent science. In the first period of L. Pasteur's activity, “it was necessary to investigate objects before one could proceed to the study of processes. You must first know what a given object is, so that you can deal with the changes that occur with them.

Louis Pasteur actually worked in complete “scientific loneliness” for almost twenty years, having only four preparators. During this time, he conducted research into the problems of fermentation, spontaneous generation, and disease in silkworms. It was at this time that the great Pasteur epic began, the heroic era of the struggle between poverty and greatness.

L. Pasteur for the first time showed that microbes differ from each other not only appearance, but also strictly defined features of its exchange. He was the first to point out the enormous role of microbes as causative agents of chemical transformations on the earth's surface, as causative agents of infectious diseases, as causative agents of fermentation. He showed that attenuated cultures of pathogenic microbes could serve as a cure (vaccine). He discovered an anaerobic (without oxygen) way of life in microorganisms. Having studied the "diseases" of beer and wine, Pasteur proposed a method for treating them with high temperatures. This method was later called "pasteurization" and is currently very widely used in the food industry around the world. The first autoclave for sterilizing the media on which microorganisms are grown was also invented for the first time by Pasteur. The work of microbiological laboratories is unthinkable without an autoclave.

Physiological period in the development of Microbiology is also associated with the name of the German scientist Robert Koch.

The German physician R. Koch (1843 - 1910) is considered the creator of modern microbiology (Fig. 3). He is considered the king of medicine and the father of bacteriology. He was the first to isolate microbes on artificial dense nutrient media and obtained pure cultures. He developed methods for staining microbes, was the first to use microphotography, he developed precise methods of disinfection, and proposed special glassware. Not a single laboratory in the world works without a Petri dish. The Koch triad formulated by R. Koch is also known, which is still used in establishing the causative agent of a disease (three conditions for recognizing a microbe as the causative agent of a certain disease: a) the pathogen microbe must be detected in all cases of this disease, but should not occur in healthy people or in other diseases; 6) the microbe-causative agent must be isolated from the patient's body in pure culture; c) the introduction of a pure culture of a microbe into a susceptible organism should cause the given disease. )

All of the above are stages of great importance for the development of microbiology. No less important are the works of R. Koch in the field of the study of infectious diseases: anthrax, tuberculosis, and others (2.16). In 1876 he discovered that the pathogen anthrax is the bacterium Bacillus anthracis. In 1882, Koch discovered the causative agent of tuberculosis, Musobasterium tuberculosis. In 1905 R. Koch was awarded Nobel Prize in medicine.